The
Poetic Approach to Language, with special reference to the History of English: By
V. K. Gokak. Principal, Rajaram College, Kolhapur. (Oxford University Press,
Pp. 247. Rs. 15)
Grown
out of the Wilson Philological Lectures, delivered in 1944 at the Bombay
University on the poetic approach to language and the linguistic approach to
poetry, the book deals with the borderline between linguistics on the one hand
and literary history on the other. The present volume is based on the first
three of the lectures and concerns itself with the poetic approach to language
and with language as poetry; in other words, with the contribution of the
poetic mind to the evolution and evaluation of language. Together with the
companion volume which we are promised, based on the remaining lectures of the
series, revealing the scholar’s approach to poetry, and dealing with poetry as
language and setting forth the linguistic contribution to the study of poetry,
the book constitutes a valuable contribution of a rare variety by an Indian
scholar to the corpus of English literary criticism.
The book is divided into three parts. The first,
dealing with the poetry of language, traces the poetic elements of music,
feeling intuition and imagination in words, and illustrates how these poetic
elements contribute to the growth and enrichment of the language. The second
part deals with the different kinds of language and the distinctive poetic
elements in them and their value for poetic purposes, the different kinds dealt
with including primitive language, the language of magic and religion, the
language of cultural adoption, language of play, transplanted language,
dialects, slang, spoken and written standards etc. The third part is entitled
‘the language of poetry’, and discusses the poetic value of proper names,
technical terms, archaisms, poetic diction, selections from the real language
of men, poetic words and quintessential words. The two chapters last mentioned,
on poetic words and quintessential words, form the most interesting part of the
book even to the general reader; and to the specialist student of literature
and literary criticism they should prove very instructive and valuable, giving, as they do, the history of
‘castaway’, ‘isolation’ and the general
changes and enrichment, in the hands of great poets, of the content and
significance of the quintessential Words like ‘melancholy’, ‘indolence’, ‘duty’, ‘conscience’.
The author succeeds admirably in leading even the lay reader to the realisation
that, when we approach language poetically, language itself is seen to be
poetry, and the evolution of a language and its growth and enrichment a
continuous poetic achievement of the people as a whole through generations. In
the hands of the poets, words are charged with the maximum of meaning and
attain universality and classicality of utterance, forming the flesh and blood
of poetry. This is the perfection that language attains as mantra, or
inspired utterance, a harmony of music and meaning, of image and emotion, of
inspiration and intuitive perception.
It
is to be hoped the book will serve to realise the double objective set forth by
the author in his Introduction: (1) to bring home to our University authorities
the desirability of making our Honours students of English Literature learn a
little more of the history of the language which they do know and a little less
of the comparative philology of the languages they do not know, and (2) to help
to stimulate similar enquiry into the history and poetry of words of our Indian
languages. The objectives are sensible and patriotic, and deserving of the
attention of all thinking men and leaders in the country. The publication is
highly creditable to an Indian scholar of the English language and eminently
calculated to secure his objectives.
Freedom and Culture: By
John Dewey (Bhavan’s Book University–Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay. Pages 148.
Price
1-12-0)
The object
of the Book University is to publish books ancient and modern in a uniform size
and at a low price, with a view to make the best literature, including the
classics of India and the world, available to the common man. The present
publication is perhaps the first of the series to redeem the promise to provide
the best literature (modern) of the world to Indians.
The
subject is Freedom which has passed into the realm of concepts of absolute
value like Truth and Beauty, though there is considerable
vagueness and confusion in the modern world regarding its connotation, and the
political, economic and social institutions calculated to secure and preserve
it. Together with ‘Democracy’ it is now the professed objective of powerful
conflicting ideologies, between which the nations of the
world feel obviously impelled to choose. This dispassionate scientific enquiry
into the subject, by a trained philosopher and seasoned humanist of the type of
Professor Dewey, should prove of immense interest to the citizens of a new
State like the Indian Union, which has recently embarked on a career of
Independence–with its declared faith in freedom and democracy–for the
realisation of its ultimate objective of a Welfare State and the fulfillment of
the destiny of its people.
The
philosopher approaches the problem of freedom in the context of culture, and
examines the mutual bearings of the two. Culture itself is defined by him as a
state of interaction of many factors, the chief of which are law and politics,
industry and commerce, science and technology, the arts of expression and
communication, morals and values, and lastly the social philosophy of the
people. He lays it down as a fundamental postulate that the isolation of anyone
of these factors, no matter how strong its workings at a given time, is fatal
to understanding and to intelligent action. His interest is in the reciprocal
connections human nature and culture bear to one another. The prejudice
against, and the fear of the threat of, the Communist ideology, with its
insistence on the economic factor–treating the system of production as the
determining factor of all the other factors of culture–is fairly obvious on the
part of even this eminent American philosopher. But he endeavours to preserve a
scientific, dispassionate attitude and manages to keep clear of partisan
criticism, as he concerns himself mainly with the threat to freedom and
democracy from within. He views the problem mainly against American background,
the history of the growth of democratic ideas and institutions in America, and
the necessary safeguards for preserving and extending the true freedom of the
individual within the framework of its democratic Constitution and society.
Particularly
instructive to us is his diagnosis of the problem in America that “the very
agencies that a century and a half were looked upon as sure to advance the
cause of freedom are those which now make it possible to create pseudo public
opinion and undermine democracy from within.” He arrives at the conclusion that
“the future of democracy is allied with the spread of the scientific attitude.
It is the sole guarantee against wholesale misleading by propaganda–a danger to
which democratic institutions are exposed by their very nature and basis in
free speech, free press, and free assembly.” From this it follows that “the
problem of the common schools in a democracy has reached only its
first stage when they are provided for everybody. Until what shall
be taught and how it is taught is settled upon the basis of formation of the
scientific attitude, the so-called educational work of schools is a dangerously
hit-or-miss affair as far as democracy is concerned.” Again and again he
emphasises: “In the present state of affairs, the conflict as it concerns
democracy is within the institutions and attitudes of democracy. It can be won
only by extending the application of the democratic method, methods of consultation,
persuasion, negotiation, communication, co-operative intelligence, in the task
of making our own politics, industry, education, our culture generally, a
servant and an enduring manifestation of democracy.” “Democracy can be saved
ultimately and immediately only by the slow day by day adoption and contagious
diffusion in every phase of our common life, of methods that are identical with
the end to be reached, and demonstrating in the conduct of the life of the
people, the efficacy of plural, partial experimental methods in securing and
maintaining an ever increasing release of the powers of human nature, in
the service of freedom which is co-operative and a co-operation which is
voluntary.” Equally valuable in our present stage of
transition, from a rural to a mainly urban civilisation, should prove his sane
advice: “Evils which are uncritically and indiscriminately laid at the door of
industrialism and democracy, might with greater intelligence be referred to the
dislocation and unsettlement of the local community; vital and thorough
attachments are bred only in the intimacy of an intercourse which is of
necessity restricted in range. It is possible to restore the reality of the
less communal organisations and to penetrate and saturate their members with a
sense of local community life. Democracy must begin at home, literally in the
family, in the local occupational group, and its hope is the neighbourly unity.
Precious
advice of this kind is scattered in abundance in the pages of this small volume,
but its chief merit is the point of view and the method of approach to the
social problem, combining the humanism of the philosopher, the logical and
dispassionate analysis of the scientist and the practical realistic attitude
and interests of the educationist. A book of outstanding significance to every
student of the social problem and public life in the country.
M. S. K.
Shakti and Shakta By
Sir John Woodroffe (Ganesh & Co., (Madras) Ltd., Madras, 17. Pp. 735. Price
Rs. 25)
The
eternal bliss and happiness which man ever seeks after is attained by the
realisation of that Supreme God that is Sat, Chit and
Ananda, i. e., “Being-Consciousness-Bliss”, and ‘upasana’ or incessant
meditation upon that Supreme God is said to be the infallible and most efficacious
means for that end. This ‘upasana’ is five-fold, according as the deity
meditated upon is the Sun, Vishnu, Ganapati, Sakti, or Siva, who in truth are
not distinct divinities but only different aspects of that one Supreme God that
is attribute-less or ‘Nirguna’. The theory and practice of this spiritual
science, ‘upasana,’ is found described in detail in what are known as ‘Agamas’
or ‘Tantras’, which are classified mainly into three varieties: Vaishnava,
Sakta, and Saiva.
The
book under review, which is a collection of essays and addresses by Sir John
Woodroffe, treats of the Sakta Tantra Sastra as it obtains chiefly in Bengal.
It is divided into four sections dealing with the nature and validity of the
Tantras in general and the Sakta Tantra in particular, Sakta Doctrine, Sakta
Ritual, and Kundalini Sakti respectively.
Sakta
philosophy is often either abused as nothing but ‘religious feminism run mad’,
or misunderstood as merely ‘the doctrine of Force’; but Sir John Woodroffe, a
stout champion and an able interpreter of the Sakta philosophy, in his
introductory section silences the critics, and proves with authority and
unassailable arguments that the Tantric philosophy is not at all lascivious in
character, has nothing of feminism in it, and that Sakti is not at all
identical with material ‘Force’. Tantras which are not antagonistic to Vedas in
their essence, as some wrongly take them to be, are practical guides to
spiritual aspirants in their Sadhana; and the Sakta Tantras, whose supremacy
consists in their Monism, their concept of the Motherhood of God, the provision
in them for Sudras and women, and lastly the Sadhana skillfully designed to
realise their teachings, are nothing but Sadhana Sastra of Advaita Vada.
In
the second section, the doctrine of Saktadvaita, with all its subtleties and
implications is presented to us on a scientific basis. A comparative study of
the philosophies of Samkhya, Saivadvaita and Saktadvaita is attempted, and the
subtle differences that exist between the Bengal Sakta Sampradaya and Sankara’s
Advaita are clearly explained. The essence and excellence of the Sakta
Siddhanta consists in the fact that “in the Sakta method it is not by denial of
the world, but by and through the world, when known as the Mother, that Liberation
is attained World-enjoyment is made the means and instrument of Liberation.
The
third section is devoted to a scientific and psychological exposition of the
Hindu ritual. The significance of Srichakra is explained briefly. It is
established that, to a discriminating Sadhaka, every part of the ritual is
significant and conducive to the purification of mind and body, and that this
ritual has nothing to do with idolatry. The significance and the esoteric
meaning of the much abused ‘Pancha Makaras’ is ably expounded by the author.
The fourth and the last section deals with the Kundalini Sakti and the Yoga
thereof.
While
reading the book, one can see in Sir John Woodroffe a teacher who, with
patience, interprets to us, critically, dispassionately and sympathetically,
the secret doctrines of Saktism in a lucid manner, calling to his aid, wherever
necessary, the modern theories of Physics and Psychology. The second and
third sections deserve to be diligently read, carefully remembered and properly
digested, by every person interested in Indian culture,
whether he be initiated or not in this cult.
Sakuntala Vimarsanam: By
Sri Nanduri Bangarayya, Advocate, Rajahmundry. (Pages 187. Price Rs. 5)
Kalidasa,
the immortal poet of India, has won laurels for his poetic muse and flawless
art, from Western and Eastern aestheticians alike, and his ‘Abhijnana
Sakuntalam’ must have been written in ripe old age, “when spiritual
discovery was made without an effort, when he did not seek for truth,
but rather was sought for by truth and found, and when beauty itself haunted,
startled and waylaid him.” Critical appreciation of this
work, though plentiful in English and other languages, are a long-felt
desideratum in Telugu. This book is therefore a valuable addition to high-class
literary criticism. Written in readable and chaste Telugu, it consists of
eleven essays dealing with the evolution of Kalidasa’s mind and art as evident
from his works, his skill in the construction of the plot, delineation of aesthetic
sentiment, portrayal of characters, propriety of language and metre, and
the splendour of the background suggested for the action in his dramas. In the
eleventh chapter we find a comparison of the ‘Sakuntalopakhyanam’ in the
‘Mahabharata’ with the story of the drama. At the end, the author gives Telugu
translations of important Samskrit passages quoted in the text.
It
is evident that the author spared no pains to bring home to the reader
the greatness of this drama in all its aspects, and, throughout
his dissertation, we see high critical acumen coupled with dispassionate and
original intellectual power.
Though
nothing but praise is due to the, author, some of his statements are of a
controversial nature, and hence need careful study, investigation and
consideration. To give illustrations:
1.
The learned author appears to be a bit uncharitable when he characterises as
‘anuchita’ or improper the question–api nama nirvighnamanoradho divasamketo
midhunasya? –put by Iravati to Agnimitra.
2.
In the second chapter the author alleges that the ancient Indian alamkarikas
did not lay stress on the importance of constructive skill in poetry or sravyakavya
as they did as regards drama or drisyakavya, but we see Ananda
Vardhana in his ‘Dhvanyaloka’ laying emphasis on this art of construction in
all kinds of Kavyas whether Drisya or Sravya, the genera name for which is
‘Prabandha’.
3.
‘Karuna’ or Pathos is the most delicate ‘Rasa’ and hence more delighting than
any other ‘Rasa’. The fourth Act in the ‘Sakuntalam’ has ‘karuna’ for its main
sentiment and hence is acclaimed as the best of the different Acts of the drama
by Indian critics; but our author, agreeing with some modern critics, assigns
this place of honour to the seventh Act wherein ‘adbhuta’ or wonder finds full
play.
4.
Our author propounds a peculiar theory of ‘Rasa’. According to him; ‘Rasa’ and
‘Kavyananda’ are different, the former being the cause and the latter the
effect. The readers should study the ‘Rasa’ theory explained by Abhinavagupta
and Jagannatha Pandita in their works, before they can come to a conclusion
regarding the tenability of this statement.
5. The author of this critical work prefers realism to idealism and typification in characterisation and description as well, and according to his view, Kalidasa, whose characters are ideal, falls short of comparison either with Vyasa or Valmiki whose works teem with realistic characters. Here we must bear in mind (I) that a gulf of difference exists between the epics on the one hand and Kavya literature on the other. (2) Indian dramatists did recognise the value of holding the mirror up to nature, but the genius did not stop short of achieving a higher ideal, rising above the limitations of this physical world. Perfection of the human soul and realisation of Godliness is their ideal, and this we find suggested in all the best Samskrit Nataka type of dramas, in heroes and heroines, relegating realism to other characters and lesser types of drama. It is for critics to decide whether Indian artists erred in preferring idealism to realism.
6.
The critic, in his fastidiousness, moves, as it were, a ‘no-confidence’
motion against Kalidasa regarding some of his descriptions. For instance,
“ksaumam
kenachidindupandu taruna mangalyam aviskrtam,
Nisthyutascharanopabhoga
sulabho laksarasah kena chit”...
This
description, he says, lacks in realism, and is unbelievable. Here we must pause
and consider the following points. Realism and unrealism are relative terms;
what is unreal to an ordinary man becomes a reality to a seer. Similarly
with nations. It all depends upon the cultural and spiritual heritage of a
nation. Indians believed and still believe in the efficacy of penance, and
Kanva’s miraculous powers are not at all unbelievable to an Indian mind. Secondly,
we must consider Kalidasa’s philosophy of Nature in particular, and Indian
philosophy in general, before we come to conclusions like these. Further one
wonders why this critic, who accepts and believes in some supernatural elements
in the same play, should think of objecting to this and some others.
7.
The author questions the basis of the classification of heroes in Samskrit
dramas as Udatta, Uddhata, Lalita and Santa. The
classification is made on the basis of the four purusharthas, Dharma,
Artha, Kama and Moksha and hence it is significant.
These,
after all, are side issues and matters of individual likes and dislikes, and in
no way detract from the merits of the book, every page of which deserves close
study. One wishes the author had given Telugu translations of all the Samskrit
passages, for the sake of non-Samskrit knowing readers. A comparative study of
the characters of Priyamvada and Anasuya, Sarngarava and Saradvata, a Time
analysis of the play, and a view of the society depicted in the drama, are some
of the topics left out by the author, which, it is to be hoped, will be
included in the next edition of the book.
We
commend to all Andhras this admirable work which should find a place on the
bookshelf of every student and scholar alike.
Girvana Rupakamu:
By Krittivasa Tirthulu. (Andhra Saraswata Parishat, Hyderabad, Deccan. Pp. 146.
Price 1-8-o.)
The
origin, nature, development and classification of Samskrit drama form the
subject matter of this work. All the information available, up-to-date, is
given here in a brief compass. The main and sub-varieties of Rupaka, (a general
name for drama) are described. A brief historical and literary account
of about 33 Samskrit dramatists is also given at the end. A separate chapter is
devoted to a description of ancient Indian theatre according to Bharata’s Natya
Sastra, though one feels the need for more elaborate explanation of the details
of it with the aid of diagrams, as well as for illustrative passages from the
well-known Samskrit dramatists to facilitate clear understanding of the
‘Sandhyangas’ dealt with in this book.
The
value and attraction of the book would have been considerably enhanced by
additional chapters on a comparative study of the dramatic theories developed
in India and England, and the nature of the Samskrit drama compared with
ancient Greek drama and modern English drama. Even as it is, the book serves
admirably as a reference book for students of the principles of Samskrit
dramaturgy and desrves to be commended to all lovers of Samskrit.