Head of the Dept. of Telugu, Osmania University

Sri Krishna Deva Raya, the great king of the Vijayanagar Empire, ruled between A. D. 1509-30. Vijayanagar reached the high-water mark of prosperity and progress during his time. The arms of the empire met with success on all the fronts, with the Bahmani Kingdom, chiefly Bijapur, and with the Gajapati rulers of Orissa. Literature and the arts were liberally patronised. Architecture received special attention and a number of famous temples were constructed during his reign. Agriculture was promoted by the construction of storage dams etc. Trade and commerce, both internal and foreign, received a great fillip. Thus the reign of Krishna Deva Raya is considered the golden era in the annals of Vijayanagar.

This remarkable progress was the outcome of the wise administrative policy and diplomacy of the Raya. He was ably served by a minister of great renown, Saluva Timmarusu. What Khaja Mohd. Gawan was to the Bahmani Kingdom, Timmarusu was to the Vijayanagar Empire. There are many great and successful kings, but they have not left any written record of their Statecraft. Unlike these, Krishna Deva Raya was a famous poet and writer. He left us an invaluable record of the guiding principles of his administration. The Raya composed the famous Telugu Kavya, named Amuktamalyada. It is also called Vishnuchittiya as it described the story of the Vaishnavite saint, Vishnuchitta. It offered the Raya a golden opportunity to expound his notions of administration and State policy. Coming as they do from the pen of a distinguished king, who both reigned and ruled, these canons have a peculiar significance. Here we have a fairly detailed account of the principles of public administration as practised in the Middle ages, chiefly in the Hindu States.

The occasion for a disquisition on politics in a poem dealing with saints arose like this. Yarnunacharya, one of the famous exponents of Vaishnavism, was said to have ruled a kingdom for some time. He desired to abdicate his throne and proceed for penance. While departing from the kingdom, he advised his son on the art of Government. This is how the Raya introduced the subject.

The science of Government was widely studied and taught in ancient India. It is called Rajaniti Sastra–the science dealing with the policy of kings. Eminent sages, like Brihaspati and Sukra, were exponents of this science. The historicity of these ancient teachers is lost in legend. The last and greatest authority on political science is Kautilya, who is generally identified with Chanakya, the great minister of Chandra Gupta Maurya. His work is known as Artha Sastra. The Mahabharata, which is an Encyclopaedia of Indian culture, contains some valuable information on the necessity of Government, the dangers of anarchy, the duties of kings, the sources of State Revenue, etc. The Shanti Parva and some portions of the Sabha Parva present this information. Krishna Deva Raya shows close acquaintance with these ancient texts of political science. He discusses this subject mainly in the fourth Aswasa of Amuktamalyada. He has some pertinent observations to make on this subject even in the third Aswasa of his work. In the course of the story of two philosopher-kings, Khandikya and Kesidhwaja, the Raya gives expression to some of his views. I have tried to draw my information mainly from Amuktamalyada. Incidentally, I refer to the Shanti Parva and Kautllya’s Artha Sastra to corroborate the views of the Raya.

For the convenience of analysis I divide the political philosophy of the Raya under ten headings:

(1) The King (2) Ministers (3) Officers and servants (4) People and the kingdom (5) Forts–Brahmins (6) Forests and wild tribes (7) The Enemy (8) Income and Expenditure (9) Trade, Internal and Foreign (10) justification of regal duties.

In ancient India, Statecraft and economics were made a joint study. This seems to be logical also, for the king’s authority cannot be divorced from public finance. Therefore, this science is called Artha Sastra–the science of Wealth and Government. Discussing the subjects in which princes should be educated, Kautilya gives his preference for four branches of learning–Anvikshaki, Trayi, Varta and Dandaniti. Other teachers prescribe the last three, and yet others the last two only. Kautilya rejects these views and advocates training in the four branches of learning. Anvikshaki seems to refer to the science of logic. Others interpret it as the philosophy of Samkhya and Lokayata (Materialistic philosophy). Trayi is the three Vedas. Varta means agriculture, care and protection of animals used in farming, and commerce (vanijya). Dandaniti represents kingly authority which prescribes the duty and lays down the principles to punish contravention of law. Here Krishna Deva Raya says: “Women are devoted to their husbands; men and women observe proprieties in sexual relations; the ascetics are self-controlled; the lower classes respect and follow the higher castes, and the king secures a devoted public service–all this is due to the fear of the king’s rod. Therefore, the king should exercise his rod, but in a considerate manner.”

Let us follow our analysis.

1. The King: Foremost in the kingdom stands the king. The whole State is second to him. Some teachers advocated the Divine Right of Kingship like the Stuarts of Britain. The Raya advocates benevolent despotism. The quintessence of his political philosophy is stated in the very opening verse of this disquisition. “At all times and in all circumstances, be ready to protect the people. When there is any appeal from people in distress, redress the grievance. Never entrust the high functions of State to evil men.” Since the king is the pivot of the whole realm, he must always guard his person. This is set forth in Khandikya Samvada thus: “The five-fold structure of the State, namely, the king, ministers, friends, treasury and the realm–all receive sustenance from the king. When the over-all body is safe, the limbs are safe. Hence the priority of the king’s safety.” The primary functions of kingship are to protect the people, destroy the enemies and build up the state finance. The king’s authority should be supreme and undisputed. The Raya observes: “Men should tremble at the king’s command. When petty chieftains of the forest are able to have their word respected, what of the crowned head? In the same breath Krishna Raya warns that the king should not be a tyrant in punishment, for he thereby terrorises and estranges the subjects.’

The king must seek the counsel of the ministers, for he cannot rule the State single-handed. Kautilya says here: “Kingship depends upon co-operation and help. Therefore, the king should choose wise counsellors and abide by their advice.” We shall go into the question of ministers, a little ahead. The king, while accepting wise counsel, should retain in his own hands the strings of the purse, and the war potential like elephants, horses and chariots. He must be valiant and endowed with knowledge. If the sinews of war are controlled by ill-disposed or evil ministers, the king becomes a plaything in their hands. The king should be vigilant with regard to internal and external foes. Even at the cost of making peace with an outside enemy, the ruler should uproot internal hostile elements. The king may enjoy the good things of the earth. He need not observe severe abstinence. But, while enjoying legitimate pleasures, he must keep an eye on the enemies at home and abroad.

The faults which the head of a State should eschew are listed thus–to collect public revenue in a manner that will annoy the subjects; brutality in punishment; to take counsel of cowards and unworthy people; to be supine and indifferent when the hostile powers encroach on his dominion; to look with distrust on proved friends. These and other faults, he must avoid in himself and wish for in the enemy.

Interesting details are given with regard to the daily routine of the king. He must get up in the early hours of the day. Some courtiers should enquire of the king whether his Majesty enjoyed sound sleep. The king should consult the royal physicians and astrologers. About 9 A. M., he must receive in audience the ministers, feudatory kings and the Kayastha officers charged with the collection of State revenue. About mid-day, he may talk to huntsmen, cooks and have his body massaged by wrestlers. Then he should perform his daily worship of Gods, respect waiting ascetics and take his food. Since the royal dishes are heavy and varied, the king should eat very late in the day, keeping an empty stomach before his first meal. He must devote special care to the up-keep of his health. Krishna Raya counsels here: “The king’s body and the kingdom are entities on par. Both must be carefully attended to.” In the afternoon the king may spend his time watching jesters, and listening to Puranas and poetry. At sunset he must confer with spies and secret messengers and enjoy music. At midnight the king retires to the queen’s apartments and goes to sleep.

The king is enjoined to practise the three-fold duties of life–Dharma, Artha, and Kama–with equal emphasis on each Krishna Raya, however, desires the king to lean more towards Dharma (righteousness) and pertinently observes: “The king may serve the three Purusharthas equally; still if Dharma preponderates, it will be like the water which is meant to flow into a particular field overflowing into the other field, a thing highly desirable.” Kautilya’s injunction is similar in this respect. He says in Vinaya Adhikara: “The king should enjoy Kama (wordly pleasures to the extent it is not in conflict with Dharma and Artha).”

2. The Ministers: Next only to the king in importance in the State, is the minister. Kautilya draws a distinction between Mantri and Amatya. For us, both words mean the same thing–Minister. In the view of Kautilya, the Mantri or Mantries are of higher status. Greater responsibility is placed on them. The officer called Amatya is of a lower grade in importance, with less responsibility. Mantries should be smaller in number. Amatyas may be several. This seems to correspond to the present practice of Cabinet Ministers and Ministers of State. Krishna Deva Raya did not make this distinction. The qualities of a minister are laid down by him in this way: “He should be well versed in Shastras, one who fears to stray from the path of righteousness, having profound knowledge of Rajaniti, in age above fifty years and below seventy, full of health, hereditarily occupying ministership, free from malice, a Brahmin,–if such a minister takes to his duties at the request of the king, what doubt can there be of the prosperity of the realm?” asks the Raya. If such a conscientious minister is not available, then the king should be his own minister. In no case should he encumber himself with an unworthy person styled as minister. An evil minister is compared to a pearl as big as a pumpkin, which is unfit for the nose ornament. Krishna Raya repeatedly cautioned against an evil minister. “The wicked minister encourages the enemies of the king in the neighbouring states. At home he will be in league with robbers and other marauders. He becomes wreckless and neglects his duties. He enmeshes the king in troublous situations, and so contrives that he alone can rescue the king. Like weed he spreads himself. This man showers all patronage on his partisans. He makes the king break troth with his opponents and thus infuriates them against the ruler. The remedy for the wicked minister is the devoted minister. Just as medicine cures the loss of digestion, so does a good minister counteract the evil one.”

3. Officers and Servants: It is a truism to say that the king cannot carry on the administration single-handed. He needs personnel to man the government. Says Krishna Raya: “Money is not the chief factor in matters of administration. It alone cannot achieve things. Without a devoted hand of officials, the government cannot function.” The way to secure such service personnel is–absence of greed (i.e., to offer them decent pay), absence of cruelty (meaning, perhaps, savagery of punishment in cases of delinquency) and, last but not least–straight dealings with them. The Raya emphasises the need for faithful officialdom by saying: “There are instances of thrones which fell a prey to the enemy in spite of the fact that the realm had all the sinews of war, only because they lacked a devoted public service.” Krishna Deva Raya advocates the appointment of Brahmins to key posts in the administration. The reason be gives is that they will stand by the king in the hour of danger. A greedy and grabbing officer should not be put in charge of temple lands and Brahmin lands. If this officer pilfers holy wealth, the sin goes to the king. Elephants and horses of war should not be given to the nobles because they use them for their own pomp, but do not tend them well. Hence they should be given only to the poorer man, who feeds them well and employs the beasts with consideration. Warning against corrupt officialdom, the emperor says: “Of what avail is the lordship of the whole earth to a king who is surrounded by a pack of jackals in the form of greedy officers who take a wicked pleasure when the citizens run away from the State in distress and migrate to other lands, leaving hearth and home, while the evil officers plunder their belongings and use the rafters of the deserted houses for fuel in their kitchens?”

The Raya goes on to say: “Do not admit the new recruit to office straight away to the secret deliberations. He feels elated by his importance and may indiscreetly talk about State secrets which will frustrate the intended purpose. In the selection of trustworthy officers the king should act like a Banya. Just as the Vaisya tests the coin, the king must test and pick the right material.” One remark of the Raya in this connection sounds somewhat crooked to us. He says: “The king must encourage rivalry among his officers. Owing to mutual jealousies they will disclose one another’s secrets to the king in turn. Thus he will come to know if there are any intrigues against himself.” At the same time, the Raya is not unmindful of the fact that healthy rivalry increases the efficiency of the officers and keeps them away from mischief. In the Sabha Parva of the Mahabharata, a very wholesome instruction is given about the payment of salaries to servants in the appointed time. The sage Narada is instructing Yudhishthira on some aspects of political science. Incidentally, he asks him, ‘Oh, King! do you arrange for the timely disbursement of salaries to your men, because the distress caused to servants by not paying them in the stipulated time results in sin, which is sure to affect the master even if he is Indra, the king among the gods.”

The Raya is a shrewd administrator and lays down that the promotion of officers should be by stages, and not sudden; for, however good the man, an officer resents if he is brought down from a higher place to a lower station. It is the mentality of a servant that, if he falls short of even one morsel, he accuses the king and blames him. Still, the king cannot dispense with all the officers. The king must not put too much confidence in his men, nor can he afford to suspect all his subordinates. He must follow the golden mean between implicit trust and distrust with regard to officialdom. While rewarding faithful and competent officers, the king must open his purse strings freely. His bounty should be sudden and plentiful, so that even the person rewarded is taken by surprise. Just as the jack fruits hang down the tree overnight in plenty, so should the king shower his bounty.

4. The State and the People: Whether the king is the foremost or the people, in the State, is a question to which we may not get an answer here to satisfy our modern notions. But this much can be said that ancient political philosophers gave equal priority to both the king and his people. Krishna Raya says: “In a State where the king loves his subjects, the people reciprocate his affection. The goodwill and prayers of the people, including Brahmins and others, are sure to be a source of blessings for the king. God is sure to grant their prayers.” He further lays down that the wealth of the king depends on the extent of his State. Even if his dominion is small, he must provide in it for wells, canals and other sources of water. The king shall show consideration to the poor Ryot in the collection of taxes and the recovery of advances made by the State to him in times of distress. Such a wise policy will not only increase the wealth of the State but it will result in Dharma. Since people keep to their occupations for fear of the king, he must exercise his duty to punish transgressors; but such punishment must not be savage. The king should adopt very gentle pressure in the collection of his revenue. Here in the Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata we find very memorable observations:

“Oh, king! the subjects are the body of the king and the king is the soul of the people. Therefore each is a complement to the other. The king protects them; the people serve him. Thus by mutual co-operation they attain prosperity.

The king should not collect taxes with brutality. It is like cutting the udder of the cow. If the cowherd desires that his cow should give him plenty of milk, he must properly tend it. The realm also is like the cow, and it behoves the king to milk it gently.

If the king collects his taxes cruelly, it is like the tiger that eats its offspring. There is no provision for the realisation of revenue in the future. Therefore the king should obtain his wealth as imperceptibly as the leech sucks blood.”

5. Forts and Brahmins: The king should keep his forts in the charge of devoted Brahmins. These commanders must be well versed, brave in battle, loyal to the king, of virtuous disposition and hereditary officers. The king shall equip them well with the needed war-potential, so that they may be able to face the aggression of enemies. The forts must be stored with all the necessary provisions and even rare products like cheese of the tiger, which will last for one whole lifetime. The king should not fail even by an iota in the fulfilment of the promises made to his feudatory chieftains. It should be noted that the Raya recommended special trust in his Brahmin officers. It does not mean that he had any superstitious faith in this class. Elsewhere, he laid down that the king should abandon a Brahmin who is not well-read in the Vedas, is not, virtuous, speaks untruths or who, is otherwise unworthy. The king must not admit to his service an ungrateful Brahmin like the one in the story of Nadijangha, the good crane. He must not hesitate to slay the man who puts his State in jeopardy, even if he is a Brahmin.

6. Wild Tribes and Forests: People living in inaccessible forests and mountains, like the Yeruku etc., are difficult to deal with. They are turbulent and they disturb the peace of the kingdom. The Raya advises that the country adjacent to the habitat of wild tribes should be given to adventurers who reside on the borders and live by fighting. The advantage in this arrangement is that, in case of conflict, either the wild tribes or the pugnacious adventurer will perish. Either way, it is a welcome result from the king’s point of view. Krishna Deva Raya closely watched the character and behaviour of these mountainous people. Being lowly people, they are prone to be easily excited and as easily pacified. They love truth and never break the plighted word. Even at the slightest hint of disrespect, they get wild and are revengeful to the last. They do not shrink from any horror. It is easy to win their love and confidence by upright action. They love truth. Being won over by polite words and liberal presents, they will serve the king faithfully. They will be handy to ravage the enemy territory.

About the forests, it is said that the State should afforest the border lands very thickly. Forests in the heart of the country should be thoroughly destroyed lest they should become the haunts of robbers and unsocial elements. The king must destroy the nests of robbers. He should take care to see that his Police officers do not harbour thieves, receiving bribes from them. It is said that some times they would let off the real prisoner and imprison in his place some innocent man. If the king, not knowing the truth, puts the innocent man on the rack, the sin will be his. It is a miscarriage of justice.

7. The Enemy: In ancient times, conquest of the enemies was considered one of the duties of kings. Describing the kings of the line of Raghu, Kalidasa says that they undertook conquests only for fame, that is to say, not for annexation of States but only to establish their sovereignty. Writers on Artha Sastra divide enemies into two categories–the internal and the external. Internal enemies are the six-fold humours like anger, malice, lust, etc.–what is styled as Ari Shad Varga. When a king does not conquer his internal enemies, how can he win victory over the outside enemies? Kautilya sets forth how many a famous king came to misery and ruin because of these faults. So he enjoins that the ruler must conquer his internal enemies, his passions, before he sets out to reduce outside foes.

The external foes are again of two types–the hostile elements in one’s own kingdom and the enemies outside the State. About intra-state enemies, the Raya lays down thus: “Just as a farmer, securing a field, first proceeds to enclose it, then digs up the earth to remove stones and roots, similarly the wise king must uproot the hostiles in the State. In this process he may even make friends with his extra-state enemies.” He must constantly keep a watch on his opponents by means of spies. The king should not be extremely cruel even with the foe. After defeating him it is better to show mercy; for that will win over the enemy.

Now with regard to enemy States, Krishna Raya says: ‘The king should converse very sweetly and politely with the ambassadors of neighbouring potentates. The ruler should not take vows to destroy the enemy State. It may not be possible sometimes to lead armies for this purpose. Even if he marches, the result may prove indecisive. Truce may have to be negotiated. ‘Is the king a man of action or a mere braggadocio?’ asks Krishna Raya. He must aim at the fulfilment of a right purpose and not be rash. The astute king proceeds against the enemy, biding his time coolly. Knowing from the reports of his secret agents that the enemy is distracted and in a vulnerable condition, the king must suddenly pounce on him and swallow him as the crane swallows the fish, without hurting himself and his own people. It is enjoined in the Khandikya Samvada that the king should rise for war-like action only at the appropriate moment.

If a campaign is decided upon, the king should go towards the enemy State by slow marches. He must constantly see that his armies keep pace with him, just as the stagnant water awaits the rush of fresh water in order to move forward. He should employ his agents to find out whether the enemy is weak and off his guard. If he comes to know that the enemy is vigilant and active, then he should not force the issue. He should be content to receive presents and tributes and return to his own State. If, on the other hand, he comes to know that the intended victim is off the guard, then let him overpower him with lightning speed. The Raya observes: “Do not force the enemy into a corner and keep him at bay. In such a predicament the opponent is driven to desperation and may offer an all-out resistance. In this case, the attacking force may suffer grievously and the king’s life may be endangered.” One of the maxims of Emperor Sri Krishna Deva Raya deserves to be written, in golden letters. He goes on to say: “If necessary, destroy the citadels of the enemy. Lay waste his territory. But if the womenfolk of the hostiles are taken prisoners by you, treat them with all respect as if they are in the house of their parents. Behave as a father or brother to them.” This great truth was not appreciated by some of his followers. We are told that the great Aliya Rama Raya, the hero of Talikota, failed to observe this significant caution and brought trouble to himself and to the empire.

8. Revenue and Expenditure: Krishna Raya did not specifically enumerate the sources of State revenue. Kautilya lays down in detail the sources of income. In a cryptic Sutra he says: “The forts, the kingdom, mines, bridges, forests, dairies, trade and highways–these form the source of revenue.” From times immemorial, Varta was recognised as the mainstay of State revenue. Varta includes agriculture, commerce and dairying. Krishna Raya may have endorsed these maxims only. With regard to expenditure he is more explicit and he lays down: “The income should be divided into four parts; one of these may be utilised for the king’s personal enjoyment and charities. Two parts should be devoted for the maintenance of a formidable army. The last portion should be in the treasury for future eventualities. This is a reserve fund. Ancient economists do not seem to endorse the modern view that deficit finance is progressive budgeting. They expressly state that revenue should be in excess of expenditure. The Raya enlarges the idea and says: “The expenditure incurred on the purchase of war animals, their fodder, pay of public servants, donations to temples and Brahmins, and the king’s own legitimate privy is not a waste, however high.”

9. Foreign Trade: The glory of the Vijayanagar Empire was mainly due to its extensive foreign trade. Krishna Raya, a far-sighted monarch that he was, took great care to foster trade. He lays down his policy thus: “The harbours and ports must be kept in proper condition and improved so that horses, elephants, precious stones and materials may freely flow in and out. If the people of other lands come to the king’s dominion because of famine, drought, epidemics and other calamities in their own home State, the king should receive them kindly and assign them occupations to which they are entitled. The king should give all facilities to the foreign merchants who import war horses and elephants. He must grant them villages, receive them with honour in the court, and provide them decent habitations in the capital city. He should offer them a higher price for the articles of merchandise than the enemy king is likely to offer and thus take care that the war animals are retained for his own army, and that they do not flow to enemy territory. He must so act that foreign merchants look upon him as a friend.”

10. Justification of Regal Duties: In spite of all good intentions and vigilance on the part of the king, there will still be occasions when Dharma is transgressed in the Government. The king will be the object of criticism in spite of all his solicitude. There is also the ancient saying: “At the end of his rule, only hell awaits the king.” If this is so, why should any individual desire to rule at all? Why should he bear a thankless burden? ‘Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown,’ says Shakespeare. But a country without a king, where anarchy prevails, is a state of affairs unthinkable to ancient writers. The Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata observes: “Oh, king! the country’s laws and its prosperity are based on kingship. The people of a country which has no king, suffer the fate of water creatures in a lake that is dried up in summer.”

Krishna Deva Raya expresses his views clearly on this dilemma thus. His words are prophetic. “The king should not turn his face against his sacred duty to govern the land. Faults there are bound to be. But the Veda does not enjoin the performance of the impossible. It enjoins you to do Dharma to the best of your ability. Great ancient rulers like Manu attained virtue by governing the realm according to their best lights. You need not shrink from the performance of the duty on the plea that you do not have those divine powers which former kings possessed. It is not only the Kshatriyas but even the Brahmins of this age that are not as omnipotent and omniscient as their counterparts in the bygone ages. But that is no reason why they should hesitate to discharge their present duties to the best of their ability. Failure to do one’s duty entails sin. Therefore the king must take upon himself the duty to protect and punish the people as laid down in the Veda, always keeping to the path of virtue and for the rest, that is unforeseen contingencies and his own inherent shortcomings, he must leave his burden on the grace of Lord Narayana, effacing all egoism in himself.”

Back