‘Paradise Lost’ and the ‘Mahabharata’:

The Philosophic Background

BY Dr. M. V. RAMA SARMA, M.A., Ph.D. (Wales)

Both the epics, Paradise Lost and the Mahabharata are didactic and have a philosophic background. Unlike all other epics which deal with simple descriptions of wars and heroic deeds, these two show us the path of deliverance from all mundane fetters. They may be considered to be ‘Smritis’–teachings of divine incarnations, saints or prophets. In the Mahabharata it is Lord Krishna, the divine incarnation of Vishnu, who explains to Arjuna various problems relating to Moksha (Salvation). In Paradise Lost Raphael and Michael try to explain and elaborate the God-given truths of the scriptures. Both these epics treat of the nature and attributes of God, and also declare the necessity of right conduct and obedience to God.

Just as Paradise Lost has certain books (V, VI, VII, VIII, XI, and XII) devoted to its theological and philosophic problems, the Mahabharata has the ‘Gita’ and the ‘Anugita’ sections, mainly devoted to the exposition of the Indian philosophy. The ‘Anugita’ is nothing but a repetition of the ‘Gita’ and is generally considered to be an interpolation. The ‘Gita’ with its pure and simple style presents the intricate philosophic truths in a clear manner. It recognises that different types of men should have different ways of attaining perfection. It is many-sided in its appeal, for it answers the needs and perplexing problems of laymen as well as saints. But it typifies mainly three distinct methods of transcending human limitations– Jnana Marga, Bhakti Marga and Karma Marga. Based on these three essential methods is the message of the ‘Gita’, though special emphasis seems to be laid on devotion (Bhakti).

Jnana Marga: –This is the method whereby man attains perfection through spiritual enlightenment. By subduing his own passions he distinguishes the real from the unreal, the spiritual from the material. Lord Krishna tells Arjuna,

“He who knows the nature

Of my task and my holy birth

Is not reborn.

When he leaves this body;

He comes to me.”

(The Gita–Trans. S. P.) (P.61)¹

This is in fact the essence of ‘Jnana’ or wisdom. It enables a man to perceive the complex nature of God and understand His mysterious ways. A man pursuing this path is not deluded by worldly joys, nor does he feel afflicted in the face of misery. To him both pleasure and pain are ephemeral. “A serene spirit accepts pleasure and pain with an even mind and is unmoved by either. He alone is worthy immortality.” (The Gita-Trans. S. P.) (P.40)

‘Jnana’ presupposes non-attachment to worldly objects. According to this method man should perform every action with his heart fixed on the Supreme Lord. When he is able to come up to this level of doing his duty, irrespective of praise or blame, he is above all human limitations. To a man of such intellectual perception based on spiritual experience, the stress is not on the values of this life but on the life supposed to be experienced after death. The greater the renunciation, the richer the enlightenment, the more will be his claims for immortality. This method is meant only for the contemplative type of man.

Milton expresses almost a similar view in his Paradise Lost as well as in Paradise Regained. Like the Indian poet he also believes that perfection lies in right conduct and belief in reason. As Adam expresses his sense of relief on beholding a pleasant vision, Micheal immediately warns him:

“Judge not what is best

By pleasure, though to Nature seeming meet,

Created, as thou art, to nobler end

Holy and pure, conformity divine.”

(P. L XI, II, 599-602)

Milton here states that human standards of judgment or appreciation are not perfect. Our judgments are clouded by our ignorance, and we become perfect only when we penetrate through this darkness and look far beyond in the direction of some guiding light gained through spiritual experience.

After being initiated into the mysteries of creation, Adam expresses his unflinching faith in God, for he says,

“Henceforth I learn, that to obey is best,

And love with fear the only God, to walk

As in his presence, ever to observe

His providence, and on him sole depend.”

(P. L. XII, 561-564)

Michael tells him that this realisation is the sum-total of wisdom. In the ‘Gita’ also we find the same idea. It stresses man’s primary duty as being the realisation of the Infinite.

In Paradise Regained Milton emphasises the fact that man should govern all his passions and desires before he can ever aim at perfection. The Son of God in reply to the luring words of Satan says.

“Yet he who reigns within himself and rules

Passions, Desires, and Fears, is more a King;

Which every wise and virtuous man attains.”

(P. R. II, 466-468)

Asimilar expression is given in the ‘Gita’ where Krishna speaks of a perfect man:

“Pain follows pleasure,

He is not troubled:

Gain follows loss,

He is indifferent.”

(The Gita. Trans. S P.) (P. 63)

He is the person who can control all his passions and be equally indifferent to pleasure and pain.

In Paradise Regained there is the idea of renunciation also. The Son of God speaks lightly of glory, pomp and such other objects of man’s feverish dreams. He says,

“But why should man seek glory, who of his own

Hath nothing and to whom nothing belongs

But condemnation, ignominy and shame?”

(P. R. III, 134-136)

It appears as though Milton himself is beginning to realise the hollowness of earthly glory. In the ‘Gita’ Krishna tells Arjuna,

“You dream you are the doer,

.You dream that action is done,

You dream that action bears fruit.

It is your ignorance,

It is the world’s delusion

That gives you these dreams.”

(The Gita: Trans. S. P.) (P. 72)

In each case the values of the world are despised. Milton sees earthly glory as nothing, since man is entirely dependent on God.

Vyasa sees all human activity as illusion. This in fact is the essential difference between the two poets.

Bhakli Marga: - Even though reference is made to ‘Jnana Marga’ in both the epics, yet they seem to lay a special emphasis on ‘Bhakti Marga’ (Devotion to God), for this can easily be followed by all classes of people. ‘Bhakti’ demands unflinching faith in God. By believing in God and by accepting the worship of Him as the right conduct, one becomes perfect. God helps those who pray to Him and the sincere prayers of a devotee are never unanswered. So ‘Bhakti’ means implicit faith and belief in God.

In Paradise Lost Milton undoubtedly advocates this faith. Raphael’s advice to Adam is based on this essential doctrine of devotion. But devotion does not mean subjugation of one’s own personality. It is based on free will. Raphael tells Adam,

“This is servitude,

‘To serve th’ unwise, or him who hath rebelled

Against his worthier, as thine now serve thee,

Thyself not free, but to thyself enthrall’d.”

(P. L. VI. 178-181)

With Abdiel, disobedience is nothing but servitude, and freedom consists in obedience to God. In Paradise Regained also, Milton reveals the same attitude, for the Son of God says,

“To know, and knowing worship God aright,

Is yet more kingly, this attracts the soul,

Governs the inner man, the nobler part,

That other o’er the body only reigns,

And oft by force, which to a generous mind

So reigning can be no sincere delight.”

(P. R. II. 475-480)

In the ‘Gita’ Lord Krishna preaches the cult of ‘Bhakti’ and he speaks exactly in the same tone as Milton’s Deity in Paradise Lost. The Deity says,

“Man shall not quite be-lost, but serv’d who will,

Yet not of will in him, but grace in me

Freely vouchsafed.”

(P. L. III, 173-175)

Lord Krishna tells Arjuna,

“Because they (the devotees) love me

These are my bondsmen

And I shall save them

From mortal sorrow

And all the waves

Of Life’s deathly ocean.”

(The Gita: Trans. S. P.) (P. 129)

These two are almost similar in thought, and the same insistence on obedience is to be found in the tone of Krishna as well as in Milton’s Deity. The Deity tells the angels in heaven,

“To prayer, repentance, and obedience due,

Though but endeavoured with sincere intent,

Mine care shall not be slow, mine eye not shut.”

(P. L. III. 191-193)

Krishna speaks exactly in similar terms when he says,

“Quickly I come

To those who offer me

Every action,

Worship me only,

Their dearest delight

With devotion undaunted.”

(The Gita: Trans. S. P.) (P. 129)

Both the epics undoubtedly demand a superlative faith in God. It is essential requisite for becoming ennobled and perfect. Krishna demands an almost unquestioning belief in him when he tells Arjuna,

“Give me your whole heart,

Love and adore me,

Worship me always,

Bow to me only,

And you shall find me:

This is my promise

Who love you dearly.”

(The Gita: Trans. S. P.) (P.172)

We can fairly conclude that these two epics express belief in the worship of God as one of the ways of obtaining release from worldly ties.

Karma Marga: - The ‘Gita’ mentions another method also by which people who believe in action can achieve perfection. This is known as ‘Karma Marga’ or duty for the sake of duty. This is otherwise known as ‘Nishkama Karma’, disinterestedness or doing one’s own duty without any expectation of reward. But this is not exactly like the Stoic doctrine of duty. The Stoic does his duty relying on himself to withstand the ills of life. There is a sort of coldness in him whereas the ideal ‘Yogin’ (practiser) of this ‘Karma Marga,’ according to the ‘Gita’, discharges his duty cheerfully, deriving strength from a belief in God.

‘Karma Marga’ stipulates that one should never relinquish his activity and cease from working. On the other hand it expects everyone to do his duty, but not with any selfish end in view. It emphatically says, “A man will reach perfection if he does his duty as an act of worship to the Lord, who is the source of the universe, prompting all action, everywhere present.” (The Gita: Trans. S. P.) (P. l69) It requires us to develop a spirit of detachment and indifference to the results of action. The duty of man is to work but he should leave the outcome to God.

A similar idea is expressed by Milton in his Paradise Lost where Michael tells Adam,

“Nor love thy Life, nor hate; but what thou liv’st

Live well, how long or short permit to Heav’n:”

(P. L. XI. 549-550)

Milton no doubt advocates the doctrine of duty for the sake of duty. But I do not think he means it in the Stoic sense. “The message of Stoicism was this: Depend upon your reason and knowledge to gain virtue; develop your resources; as there is no life after this, don’t worry about the future; gain happiness from the consciousness of right doing; make yourself absolutely independent of all things external to yourself; derive all good from within; as material things are only appearances and not within your power, accept them or resign them without emotion as fate or fortune may dictate; free yourself from all passion and achieve happiness by desiring those things only which you can bestow upon yourself.” ² Stoicism understood in this light is entirely different from the concept of ‘Karma Marga’ as exemplified by the ‘Gita’. The person practising this method does his duty with a pleasant satisfaction that he is doing the right thing and earning the grace of God. Unlike the Stoic, he believes in a life after death, and that is one of the reasons why he is indifferent to the results of his action in this life. ³ His activity does not cease with this life alone. Life on this earth is only one of a long series of lives, and by performing his duty with belief in God the devotee will gradually become one with the Infinite.

Milton, believing in the innate capacities of man, gives us the impression of a Stoic in his advocacy of duty for the sake of Towards the close of Book Ten he makes Adam almost perfect. Adam repents of his mistake and humbly prays to God. This surrendering to God’s ways is no doubt a betterment in him. But it is not purification in its entirety. By himself man can realise his mistake, but he needs God’s grace to be sublimated and made pure. If Milton had closed his epic with his Tenth Book, Adam would have seen a Stoic trying to withstand the bitter odds of life through his own individual efforts. But by the Tenth Book Adam is not completely reconciled to the idea of God’s justice. In the inmost recesses of his heart there is still a bitter thought that God has entrusted him with a too heavy responsibility. He is not completely devoted to Him either. By adding two more Books to the epic Milton makes Adam a faultless figure. Michael revolutionises the outlook of Adam, and the latter accepts his duty of worshipping God, not as a Stoic, but as a cheerful devotee who is ready to do everything with faith in God. The Christ of Paradise Regained in a similar way is no Stoic, but a ‘Bhakta’ or devotee. Adam attains perfection not through his individual efforts but through divine grace also. By doing this Milton may be said to be more in sympathy with the Indian thought of ‘Karma Marga’ and the Christian doctrine of Divine grace than with the Stoic thought of cold resistance. ⁴

Both the epics are seen to express similar views on the attaining of perfection and they have the same attitude towards right conduct and the worship of God. But apart from these philosophic truths, both the epics preach temperance and moderation in all our pleasures. Milton believes that we should “temper joy with fear” and the Mahabharata is replete with such maxims of morality.

There is one particular thought on which the two epics differ. It is on the question of reincarnation. Krishna tells Arjuna: “There was never a time when I did not exist, nor you, nor any of these kings. Nor is there any future in which we shall cease to be.” “Just as the dweller in this body passes through childhood, youth and old age, so at death he merely passes into another kind of body. The wise are not deceived by that.” (The Gita: Trans. Swami.) (P. 40) The question of rebirth is never considered by Milton. In this respect he is different from Vyasa.

Milton may have believed that the soul is merely the life and dies with the body, but, if so, he did also believe in final resurrection. He introduces the problem of life continued after death, through Adam when he is in a desperate mood. To Adam death seems to be the only solution for putting an end to his misery, But very soon the shadows of doubt creep in and he says,

“Yet one doubt

Pursues me still, lest I cannot die,

Lest that pure breath of Life, the Spirit of Man

Which God inspir’d, cannot together perish

With this corporeal Clod; then in the Grave,

Or in some other dismal place, who knows

But I shall die a living Death?…….”

(P. L. X, II, 782-788)

These lines are reminiscent of Hamlet’s searching doubts as regards life after death. On the whole Milton does not seem to be quite definite about the immortality of the soul, but he must have believe in some form of personal survival after death.⁵ But Vyasa unquestioningly believes in the immortality of the soul.

To conclude, both Paradise Lost and the Mahabharata have the same message to convey, the message of unquestioning faith in God. But they offer other methods also whereby man can become spiritual in outlook and annihilate all his passions completely. The goal is the same–release from all worldly contacts but different individuals achieve it through different ways. The two epics realise this and suggest alternative methods of seeking the Infinite. To the contemplative man, to the humble devotee, and to the man of action, to everyone of them these two epics offer a message of hope, faith and courage. In Paradise Lost these different methods are not clearly and systematically described as in the Mahabharata, but the thought is interwoven in the same philosophic texture.

[A chapter from the thesis, “Milton’s Heroic Poetry: A comparative study with reference to Sanskrit Epic,” approved for the Ph. D. degree in the University of Wales, June, 1948.]

¹ Abbreviations used: - P. L. ‘Paradise Lost’ P. R. ‘Paradise Regained,’ P. Q. Philological Quarterly. S. P. Swami Prabhavananda.

Editions used: - The Gita: Trans. Swami Prabhavananda and Christopher Isherwood, 1947. The Poems of Milton: Ed. H. C. Beeching. (Oxford University Press).

² Martin A. Larson- “Milton’s Essential Relationship to Puritanism and Stoicism” P. Q. April. 1927.

³ Browning in his ‘Rabbi Ben Ezra.’ expresses the same opinion when he says,

“Not on the vulgar mass

Called ‘work’ must sentence pass,

Thing done that took the eye and had the price.’

⁴ Mr. Rajan while speaking of the last two Books of ‘Paradise Lost’ says: “I agree that the ideal set forth is one of contempt for the world rather than charity towards it, the Milton shows us the Stoic indifferent to events and not the crusader whose righteous actions redeem them.” (Paradise Lost and the Seventeenth Century Reader- p. 79. I do not agree with this view for reasons shown above.

⁵ Prof Saurat in his ‘Milton: Man and Thinker’ says, ‘Now, Milton, while adopting the ideas of the Mortalists, kept his own intensely religious spirit and particularly his absorbing thirst for Justice. To him, to his whole scheme of thought, for abstract and for sentimental reasons, immortality was necessary.” (P.320)

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