KATHAKALI

M. K. K. NAYAR

Today most people know that Kathakali, India’s classical dance drama, originated in Kerala, but it is doubtful whether many people have an adequate appreciation of the earlier histrionic features that contributed in one way or another to the evolution of this highly specialised art form.

Like miracle plays of Europe, but in an incipient form, ritual plays used to be enacted in temples from very early times in Kerala. The most popular theme was the slaying of the demon Darika by Durga. One cannot say how ancient this incipient drama was in existence in Kerala. There is proof that it was there before the second century A. D. This drama called “Darika Vadha,” was one of the contributory factors to the common Vadha concept or the slaying of the demon usually depicted in several popular pieces of Kathakali.

Another interesting factor that played its part in the evolution of Kathakali was the tradition of the gymnasia known as Kalaries in Kerala. The Kalari was a place confined to military training including physical combat. The Nayars of Kerala were a fighting class although they were both chieftains and farmers alike. Their main stay however was soldiering. The Kalaries provided the training with the advent of the Aryan element into Kerala, Brahmins also took part in the exercises in the gymnasia. Some of them became teachers too. As the Brahmins had the ability to convert anything into a religious ritual or to provide anything with a religious aura, the Kalari celebrations soon took a religious turn. Thus arose what was called the Sangha Kali (also called Sashtra Kali, Chatura Kali, Satra Kali or Yatra Kali). Though the festivities closed with the display of combatant techniques, they all began with ritual worship, recital of narrative poems on the chosen diety and a few comic interludes. Comic characters were considered essential to break the possible monotony in sequences. The Kalari thus gave rise to a form of drama which combined both physical display and intellectual relaxation. Gradually two distinct forms were evolved, the comedy and the dance drama. Comedy no doubt contained a good percentage of satire.

Another important art form that contributed to the making of Kathakali was the Kudiattam. Again we do not know how old Kudiattam is. Chilappathikaram, the famous Tamil epic written by Elankovan, brother of Cheran Chenkuttavan, the Chera emperor of the second century A. D., who ruled from his headquarters within a few miles of the present Cochin Port, described in detail the performance of Kudiattam and Chakiar Koothu then prevalent in Kerala. One could not say definitely which was older–Kudiattam or the Chakkiar Koothu. The elite of Kerala at that time were well-versed in Sanskrit. The drama attracted them. To enact Sanskrit drama a group of people with histrionic talent was selected. The performance given by the group was called Kudiattam. It might be of interest to know that even in those days Kudiattam was performed by both men and women. The particular sect who performed these dramas were called Chakiars and the women Nangyars. Chakiars were specially trained to portray different roles with enviable effect. Talented men among them used to give mono-act performances. Such performances were called Chaklar Koothu.

The Chakiar Koothu was dominated essentially by the comic spirit. The Chakiar had great licence to ridicule contemporary society. Even kings were not exempt. The convention was that if any member of the audience spoke in protest of the Chakiar’s innuendos, he walked out of the stage. Chakiar Koothu is popular even today. It is usually performed in temples. Chakiars are great masters of histrionic art. They are veterans in Abhinaya.

As the centuries rolled by, Jayadeva’s Geetha Govinda became a popular poem in Kerala. The Zamorin of Calicut, a powerful king who managed the affairs of the famous Guruvayur temple devoted to Lord Krishna, was enamoured of Geetha Govinda. He insisted on Geetha Govinda being recited in the Guruvayur temple every day. Some devoted Nambudiri Brahmins in Guruvayur listening to this ecstatic music conceived of a dance drama based on it. This dance drama known as Krishnattam–in other words the dance of Krishna–became very popular in that area.

The origin of Kathakali is shrouded in folklore. The poem written for Kathakali is attributed to the Rajah of Kottarakara a small chieftain in South Kerala. When it was introduced it was popularly known as Ramanattam–in other words, the dance relating to Rama. Legend has it that the Rajah of Kottarakara had conceived of Ramanattam as a reply to the great Zamorin’s Krishnattam. Whatever the legend may hold, the beginning of the Kathakali that we see today was with the Rajah of Kottarakara’s story of Ramayana written for the purpose. At the time he himself was not very clear in his mind of the tremendous potential of the seed he had sown. The costumes used then were not elaborate or glamorous. Dancers were also expected to sing along with their performance. Very soon Ramanattam became popular. One of the reasons for this popularity was the jealousy of the smaller chieftains towards the mighty Zamorin. A chieftain called the Rajah of Vettathunadu, a neighbour of the Zamorin’s territory, took Ramanattam into his hands and developed it in the initial stages. He devised proper dance movements, especially those now known as Kalasams. He also found like Lucian in Greece, that violent exercise caused shortness of breath and the song suffered from it. He therefore provided a musician to sing the poem from behind the dancers, so that the dancer could be free to dance and express the emotions. The Rajah of Vettathunadu was also responsible for improving the costumes and the facial make-up of the artist. But Kathakali was still in its infancy when this great lover of art breathed his last with very fond words on Ramanattam on his lips just as he closed his eyes for ever. He was no poet. He did not therefore write any poem for Kathakali.

The first major event that happened in the history of Kathakali after the creation of Ramanattam by the Rajah of Kottarakara was the emergence of a great scholar, the Rajah of Kottayam in North Kerala. He recognised the tremendous potential of a dynamic art form like the Kathakali. He realised that any dance drama based on an essentially devotional piece like the Ramayana had its limitations for vibrant expression and emotional display. He therefore turned to the Mahabharata where men were men and women were women. He converted Ramanattam which was till then more of a religious ritual than a dance drama, into Kathakali, resplendant with emotion and capable of converting the audience into identifying themselves with the characters displayed. He wrote four Attakathas, i.e., poems for Kathakali performances. They are even today the basic Kathakali themes. The first one related to the slaying of Baka by Bheemasena. The second called “Kirmeera Vadha” described the life of the Pandavas immediately after their exile from Hasthinapura. The third one a very popular piece called “Kalyana Saugandhika” related to the mad rush of Bheemasena to collect the flower that attracted the whim of his beloved Draupadi. The fourth work of his called “Kalakeya Vadha”, presented Arjuna at once as the most glorious hero and the most humiliated object of ridicule. It was the Rajah of Kottayam who gave shape and substance to Kathakali. Like Poet Dandi who prescribed the code for a Mahakavya, the Kottayam Rajah evolved the pattern of presentation of Kathakali. After Kottayam’s days no one heard of Ramanattam; everyone talked of Kathakali. Katha means story; kali means play. But Kathakali does not mean merely a story-play; it is much more than that.

It is not necessary to go into the various stages of development of Kathakali after the days of the Rajah of Kottayam. It is enough to mention two significant events in the history of Kathakali to bring one up-to-date. The first relates to the period when a versatile artist called Kaplingad Nambudripad who lived towards the end of the 18th century, worked for a few years under the supervision and guidance of Maharaja Karthika Thirunal of Travancore to improve the costumes and make-up employed in Kathakali to make them attractive and, at the same time, unearthly. He introduced various reforms in the methods of presentation of characters and set the proper perspective for the creative artist. The second major event took place only 40 years ago when the great poet Vallathol established the Kerala Kalamandalam, the academy of Kerala arts of today. It was mainly through his efforts that art lovers outside Kerala got an opportunity to learn and see this great art form.

Kathakali is a marvel of perfection in which detail upon detail is added, each complementing the other and fits into the whole with organic naturalness and exact balance. It opens with a festive gusto of relentless drumming and song accompanied by loud musical instruments, making the whole atmosphere ring with a wierd sound transporting the audience to a different world of rythm and fantasy. Essentially based on sage Bharatha’s Natya Sastra yet developed into much more meticulous detail, Kathakali is a highly specialised art, its specialisation permeating every aspect of it with the same uncompromising intensity and superb finish.

Kathakali combines in it both the Thandava and the Lasya styles of dancing. Yet it is essentially a masculine performance. Intensive and ruthless, training for a period of a dozen years or more enables the artist to bring under perfect control every part of his body solely for the sake of aesthetic expression. His eyes are ever vibrant; his facial muscles eloquent; his finger tips creative; and his whole person the very embodiment of rhythm. The story of the dance drama is related by the actor by gestures and with the aid of Hasthalakshanas (popularly known as Mudras), as the musicians sing the slokas and the padas. Bharatha taboos theatrical exhibition of battle scenes and blood-letting. But in Kathakali nothing is taboo. Marriages take place on the stage; battles are fought; entrails are pulled out. The most beautiful and the most grotesque are presented with equal dexterity.

Kathakali is the visual presentation of mythological characters. The costumes and make-up are therefore designed to create the necessary appeal. The facial make-up might give an impression that masks are used. In Greek dramas and Chinese and Japanese plays masks are used extensively. When one uses a mask one cannot express an emotion on the face. The Kathakali make-up is different because the whole face is painted over–the lips, eye-brows and eye-lashes emphasised. The differential make-up is luminously clear in its typological indications. One could compare the make-up in a distant manner to the mask of a Japanese Noh play actor. The mask employed by the Japanese and the Chinese does not permit the face its rich expressive mobility. But in a Kathakali character the contour of the face is clearly demarcated by a white thin fringe called the Chutti which frames it effectively making the face a stage for the inner spirit. The tumult or the tranquility within, find immediate expression in the mobile features with no mask to conceal them.

Make-up alone takes about three to four hours for a Kathakali actor. The make-up and costume also determine the character portrayed. For this purpose mythological characters are classed into different categories. The first in the order of precedence is the Dhirodatta, the noble-hearted, upright hero. The costume known as Paccha (face painted in green) is allotted to such characters. Examples are the Devas (Indra), noble kings like Nala, Yudhishtira, Rukmangada, Arjuna and Bheemasena. All characters who don Paccha also wear Kiritas (headgear); but when it comes to Krishna, the headgear is changed to what is called the Mudi. This costume has now come to be referred to as “Mudi”. For both Mudi and Paccha the facial make-up is the same. The clothing of Paccha normally consists of purple jackets and white skirts. Krishna’s costume however is a dark jacket and yellow skirt. Paccha and Mudi represent Satwa Guna.

Kathi, another prominent costume of Kathakali, is devoted to Prathinayakas or heroes who are classed under the term Dhirodhata. The costume in general is similar to Paccha. The facial make-up is different. A knife-shaped pattern is drawn on either cheek in red pigment over the normal Paccha make-up. In addition, a small ball called Chuttippoo is fixed on the tip of the nose and another one in the centre of the forehead. Kathi represents Rajasa Guna and is the costume of characters like Ravana, Kamsa, Jara. sandha and Duryodhana. Kathi can be said to denote a combination of royalty and evil. Kings of Rakshasas like Ravana or Rakshasas among kings like Kamsa are depicted in Kathi. Also villains like Kichaka. Whereas Paccha characters do not open their mouth or create any noise, Kathi characters are permitted to make weird noises appropriate to the occasion or to the emotion expressed.

The costume that represents Thamoguna or Thamas is Tati. Tati means beard. There are red, black and white Taties, each depicting a type of Thamoguna. Red Tati has the face painted in a frightening dark pattern and wears an impressive red beard. The headgear is round in shape and much larger in size than the Kiritas worn by Paccha or Kathi. On the tip of the nose and on the forehead Tati costumes wear Chuttippoos of a much bigger size than those worn by Kathi. Red Tati is usually given to extremely wicked characters like Rakshasas or despicable men like Dussasana. Examples are Bakasura and Murasura. The concept of the red Tati is one of a destructive evil force with little or no thinking faculty. The costume has therefore been extended to portray roles like Sudarsana Chakra and Veerabhadra. The Sudarsana Chakra is the all-powerful weapon of Vishnu. Annihilation without thought is its motto. So also Veerabhadra who is born out of the ire of Siva, is nothing but an agency for destruction and blind obedience.

A further extension of the Tati costume is its application to the monkey kings like Bali and Sugriva. Here again, the human concept for the unthinking monkey must have influenced this decision.

The black Tati or black beard is a costume given to a character like Kali in Nalacharita. The character depicted is as evil as the red Tati, but has the subtle distinction that it denotes also a treacherous schemer. The make-up is similar to red Tati, the beard alone being black in colour.

Tati or white beard is a further refinement of the Tati group of characters. A good example is Sakuni, the notorious uncle of the Kauravas, who is an arch schemer with no scruples but no physical prowess either. The make-up is simpler than in red Tati. Even the usual chutti is omitted and a white beard worn.

All bearded characters are permitted to make noises appropriate to the occasion. Sometimes this may amount to loud roaring.

Another costume very popular In Kathakali is Kari. It is an all-black costume with the face painted in black and the jackets and skirts blacker. The headgear is primitive. This costume i. used for depicting the lowest primitive human being; both man and woman. The noises they produce can almost amount to howling. The characters portrayed in this costume are Kiratas (Chantalas) and demonesses like Surpanakha or Tataka.

The make-up used for gentle characters is Minukku. It consists of a mere painting of the face with a yellowish orange pigment. There is no chutti; no elaborate clothing as in other characters. Stri (woman), Rishi and Brahmanas appear in Minukku. Other characters who appear with such make-up are charioteers and mrssengers.

Stories of Kathakali are written in the form of Attakathas in Malayalam and consists of slokas constituting the narrative portion padas, the dialogue. These are set to music in appropriate ragas and the musician sings them to the accompaniment of the drums and cymbals.

The stage used in Kathakali is the simplest imaginable. The only equipment needed on the stage is a huge coconut oil lamp towards which all movements converge. The curtain used is a small rectangular piece of cloth called Tirassila. The drums used are the Chenta and the Maddala. The Chenta is not used during lasya. The other musical accompaniments used are the Chengila and Ilatala. Almost all the stories that appear on the Kathakali stage are from the two great Hindu epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana.

In truly traditional style Kathakali is played throughout the night in the open air. It starts in the evening with Kelikottu, the formal announcement when all the drums and cymbals are played in the courtyard for a while. At about 9 P. M. the Maddala is played for a short while in front of the oil lamp. This is followed by Totaya when one or two players perform an invocational piece. After this the musicians sing the first sloka of the story of the night. This is followed by purappadu This is reckoned as a formality–a formal darsan of the Lord and His Consort or the presentation of the hero. At the end of this, the musicians and drummers take the opportunity to entertain the audience with the nuances of their art. This interregnum is called the Melappada. After the Melappada, the story begins.

When characters in costumes other than Paccha or Minukku make their debut, they follow a formality called Tiranokku. A literal, though incorrect, translation of this word is “curtain-look”. The word debut conveys its meaning in a more exact manner. The character stands behind the Tirassila very close to the lamp and to the accompaniment of the drums and cymbals slowly brings the Tirassila down so that the audience can have a good look at the character and make-up for a few steady moments. It started in the old days as a convention to draw the attention of the spectators to the arrival of a powerful character and to enable the audience to appreciate the elaborate make-up employed so that they could get a proper mental picture of the character depicted. It has come to stay as an inevitable formality and helps create the necessary tempo required when a powerful character makes his or her debut.

One of the unique features of a Kathakali performance is what is called Ilakiattam. The term is used to distinguish it from Cholliattam. Chollattam means dancing to the words sung by the musician. The musician can sing only what is written in the poem. When the artists dance to express the meaning of the slokas and the padas sung by the musician it is Cholliattam. At the end of it one should normally expect the curtain. But the curtain does not fall so soon in Kathakali. The characters continue to converse with each other by the use of gestures and hasthalakshanas. Depending upon the talent and standing of the artist on the stage this conversation can occupy anything from five minutes to a few hours. This is the occasion when the artist gets an opportunity to use his Manodharma (creative imagination). An artist of high calibre can make the scene most effective and delightful. The converse is also true. Traditions and conventions have determined the occasions when Ilakiattam could be elaborate. Instances are numerous. Just to cite an example: The story is Bali Vijaya in which Ravana at the instigation of Narada goes to Bali, challenges him to fight and gets thoroughly humiliated in the end. In the scene in which Narada with his inimitable tail-bearing technique infuriates Ravana against Bali, the great Lord of Lanka decides to go and teach Bali a lesson. The pada ends there. Thereafter both Ravana and Narada enter into a long discourse. The incident can develop from Ravana picking up his famous Chandrahasa, the sword presented to him by Lord Siva, and Narada making fun of him by saying that anyone would laugh at the idea of a hero like Ravana using a sword to vanquish a mere a monkey instead of carrying a small piece of rope to tie it up. This could give an opportunity to Ravana to explain to Narada what Chandrahasa means to him. He could describe his triumphant battle with Vaishravana; the capture of the Pushpaka Vimana; his storming of Kailas and the way in which he threw up the whole mountain as if it were a feather and so forth. Depending upon the talent and the mental horizon of the artist he could make the scene an unforgettable one. Ardent devotees of Kathakall look forward to scenes of Ilakiattam than any other portion of Kathakali. Other occasions when Ilakiattam is done are where a character takes an opportunity to describe a forest (Vana Varnana) the heaven (Swarga Varnana) and so forth.

A traditional Kathakali performance runs through the night and the Mangala Sloka is sung with the dawn.

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