Theatre-Architecture in Ancient India
Dr.
V. RAGHAVAN, B.A., (HONS)
(Late Dr. V. Raghavan was an eminent scholar and
critic on Arts and a prominent writer of yester years. He lent his support to
the All India Competitions in Music and Dance, when these were started in 1961.
We reproduce below one of his articles published in the TRIVENI of July/August
1933. Ed)
The
sources of information on the subject of theatre-architecture in ancient India
in Tamil are of two kinds: Kavya (Poetry), and Sastra (Poetics or Dramaturgy).
Of the former class, the Silappadikaram of Ilankovadikal, a dramatic
composition (Nataka Kavya), is the only Kavya which helps us largely in getting
glimpses of the nature of the stage or theatre in times past.
Chapter
III of this dramatic poem, Silappadikaram, is called Arangettrukkadai,
i.e., the gatha describing the first dance performance presented for
the approval of the king and the learned men. The place is the famous
Kaverippumpattinam, the place of Kovalan, the hero of the poem. Madhavi, a
courtesan of that city, gives her maiden dance performance before the king who
has invited the chief citizens, Perunkudihal, of whom Kovalan is one.
The chapter opens with a description of Madhavi and then her troupe, consisting
of a very learned natyacharya or Nattuvan (Adal Asiriyan), a
sangitacharya or musician (Isai Asiriyan), the player on the drum, the
mardangika (Tannumai Asiriyan), and an accompanying orchestra of a
flutist and a vainika, (Kuzhalon and Yaz Asiriyan). The
accompaniment at that time thus consisted of a vocal musician, a drum-player, a
flutist, and a vainika. This corresponds to what Bharata has given, there being
in his Natya, besides the vocal songster, three orchestras, the Avanaddha
Kutapa (drums), the Sushirakutapa (flutes) and the Tata Kutapa (stringed
instruments). It is only recenily that conditions have changed. We can even now
see some Tevaram Goshthi, singers of Tevarams, having the flute
accompaniment. The Mukha Veena was accompaniment for sometime in the Sadir
performances, but soon the clarionet displaced it. The accompaniment of the
stringed orchestra of the Veenas, the Tata Kutapa, disappeared
long ago. Now a clarionet, a Mridanga, and a vocal songster support the
Natya today.
After
describing the qualities of these accompaniments, the poem describes the stage
on which Madhavi gave her performance. The text, now and then, says that the
stage was built according to the Sastra, the text on Natya. What are the works
on Natya on which Ilankovadikal based his description of the stage?
Adiyarkkunallar, in the beginning of his commentary on the poem, gives a list
of nine works on dance, drama, and music as authorities for the text of the Silappadikaram.
None of these works are available now. Ilankovadikal, in his description of
the stage, is very meagre, but still this little section of nineteen lines
(95-113) is very valuable as being the only means of our having some clear view
of the stage in ancient India.
Firstly
the measuring pole is described. There is some difficulty in the interpretation
of the text on the length of this pole. A good bamboo
must be chosen and 24 Virals, i.e. Angulas must be taken as a unit for
further measurement. An Angula is given as the
measurement of the thumb of a Mahapurusha. Directly from Angula the
text passes to a Kol, i.e. Danda and by itself the text here would mean
that a Kol or Danda is 24 Angulas. In that case, the stage
becomes very small. The text, however, contains nothing more. The commentary adds
nothing more except giving a name Muzham i.e., Hasta for 24 Angulas. Neither
the second commentary nor any of the treatises on Natya Sastra quoted by it add
anything more. The scale of measurement given in Tamil from the small speck of
dust called Ter Tuhal, (Skr. Rajas) up to Viral or Angula
corresponds to what Bharata has given in the same context in his Natya
Sastra. But Bharata gives it thus: 24 Angulas (Tamil, Viral)=1 Hasta
(Tamil, Muzham), and 4 Hastas=1 Danda (Tamil, Kol).
In adopting this scale of Bharata, the dimensions of the stage in Silappadikaram
become sufficiently enhanced. This problem was finally solved for me by
Mahamahopadhyaya Swaminatha Aiyar. He said that the text of Silappadikaram gave
the measurement of a Hasta or Muzham only, and that the Kol or
Danda, which was very well known as 6 ft., i.e., 4 Hastas, was
not described in the text. This interpretation solves the difficulty.
Thus the scale of measurement given by Silappadikaram and all other
Tamil works on Natya corresponds to that given by Bharata in Chapter II of his
Natya Sastra: 24 Angulas=1 Hasta; 4 Hastas=1 Danda;
Hasta=l.5 ft; Danda=6 ft.
Then
the Silappadikaram gives the dimensions of the stage. The length is 8 Kols;
the breadth, 7 Kols; the height of the stage-platform is 1 Kol; and
the height of the stage-space from the floor of the stage up to the beam is 4 Kols.
That is, the stage is 48 ft. X 42 ft.; the height of the platform is 6 ft.,
and that of the stage-space, 24 ft. This stage then approaches the nature of
the rectangular stage of Bharata, of the middle size, approximately.
The
stage is given two doors. The commentator adds that one door is for entrance
and one for exit. After the erection of the stage, it is said that the figures
of the Bhutas for worship must be drawn on the floor of the stage. The
commentary says that the Bhutas are the figures representing the four
castes and that they are drawn on the floor and propitiated. The second
commentary adds that further information of the painting of these four VarnaBhutas,
of their anatomy, dress, decoration, etc., can be had in a further context
in the section of the poem called Azhar Padu Kadai.
The
lights are then spoken of. It is said that they must be so arranged as not to
make the pillars cast shadows on the king and his party or the other spectators
in the audience hall. The lights are said to be big and beautiful. The curtains
are then described. The text mentions three curtains; Oru Muha Ezhini, Poru
Muha Ezhini, and Karanduvaral Ezhini. The first-mentioned curtain is
one which is pulled along to one side, the next is a double curtain, cleft at
the middle, the two bits shrinking separately at the two sides, enabling
entrance. The last-mentioned curtain is one that rolls upwards and downwards.
The, first commentary gives some more details as regards these three curtains.
The single curtain shrinking to one side is said to be fixed on the left side,
the double cleft-curtain on the right side, and the rolling one in the front.
Thus the right side having the double curtain, has the gate of entrance for the
danseuse. The second commentator says that the rolling curtain is for occasions
of Akasa Charins, those appearing in the sky, such as the Devas. These
pertain to drama and not to dance. This mystifying reference, however, shows us
that there are other texts which describe a stage completely from the point of
view of not only dance, which is performed by one person, but from the point of
view of drama also, which has many persons personating in it, and consequently
needs greater equipment about the stage.
The
last thing mentioned of the stage by the poem is the beautification of the
stage. Bharata says that the stage and the audience hall must be lavishly
decorated with wood-carvings and paintings. The Silappadikaram also says
that the stage must have a painted canopy above, that it must have the
appearance of a newly built one, and that hangings of pearl and other garlands
must beautify it.
The
text then passes on to the dancing, Purva Ranga, etc., with which we
have nothing to do at present. In the above account we have a few details about
the stage, its length, breadth, height, its two gates, three curtains,
lighting, and decoration. Only the stage proper, as much as is enough for
dance, is described, and not the theatre completely. In connection with
lighting, there is just a passing mention of a portion of the audience hall
accommodating the king, but of the audience hall itself nothing is spoken. In
the stage itself we do not hear of the green-room, etc. But there is a small
word in the text ‘Etra,’ which the second commentator takes to refer to
the other features of the complete theatre which, though not described by the
text of the poem, he gives from the texts on Natya. Thus this small description
of the bare stage must not be taken to mean that the stage of those times
itself was not well-built or was crude, but it means only that, for his poem,
the author had no necessity to describe more.
Among
poems none else gives even this information. However, the idea of a well-built
stage being a fact, there are sundry references to certain parts of it in some
other poems also. Thus the Jivaka Chintamani says that the curtains are
three and are called single, double, and single rolling. The Manimekhalai says
that the single curtain should be glass-like. There is reference to stage and
dance on it in the Manimekhalai, but we have no details of the stage
architecture given there. These references are given as footnotes by M. M.
Swaminatha Aiyar in his edition of the Silappadikaram.
Coming
to the Sastra, treatises on dance, drama, and music, we have little of
the vast Natya literature of Tamil now available. Three of them are said to
have been secured by the editor of the Silappadikaram, M. M. Swaminatha
Aiyar. The Silappadikaram itself now and then refers to the rules laid
down in the treatises. The first commentator quotes many extracts in his
commentary, but none with either the name of the author or of the work. Only
one quotation has been given by him with the author's name and it is Seyittriyanar.
The second commentator, a later writer who follows the first commentary, is
ample in the information he gives. At the beginning of his commentary he gives
a list of Natya and Sangita works upon which Ilankovadikal based his Silappadikaram,
and another list on which he says he depends for his own commentary. The
works thus mentioned as authorities for the Silappadikaram are Peru
Narai, Perunkuruhu, Pancha Bharatiyam of Deva Rishi Narada, (3 works on
Music) Bharatam, Ahattiyam (Agastya’s work), Muruval, Sayantam (Jayantam,
named after Indra's son Jayanta, for whom it was written), Guna Nool, and
Seyittriyam, named after its author, (6 works on dance and drama). Those
given by the commentator Adiyarkkunallar as the authorities he used are thus
given by him: -
Isai
Nunukkam of Sikhandi, pupil of Agastya. This work was
written for the education in music of Sara Kumaram, born of the half-divine
Pandya of the second Sangam called Anakula, and the Apsaras
Tilottama whom the king met while riding in the air.
Indrakaliyam
of Yamalendra.
Pancha
Marabu of Arivananar.
Bharatha
Senapatiyam of Adivayilar.
Madivananar
Nataka Tamizh Nool of Pandyan Madivananar, a Pandyan king of
the last Sangam who was a recognised poet. This work is said to be
distinguished prominently by
treating of Puhazh
Kootthu (literally, eulogistic dance to glorify the victor-king: Vettriyal)
from the earlier works which treated of Vasaik Kootthu (literally,
satyric dance with reference to the defeated king: Poduviyal). None
of these works are available now. However, we have fragments of these quoted by
Adiyarkkunallar in his commentary, and when one peruses this portion of his
commentary, one sees clearly that, to a large extent, the Tamil Natya Sastra is
not only based on the Sanskrit Natya literature but also that the former
borrows freely from the latter.
On
the subject of theatre-architecture, some fragments of these works are
available to us in the quotations of Adiyarkkunallar. The works quoted by him
in this section on stage-architecture are Bharata Senapatiyam, Seyttriyam (an
older work, being given, as noted above, as an authority for Silappadikaram itself)
and the work of Madivananar, the Pandyan king. Besides extracts from these
three, there are other valuable quotations which are anonymous.
The
Natya Sastra of Bharata, in its treatment of the theatre begins with the
choosing of the ground itself, giving the qualities of the ground that should
be chosen as the plot for the building of the theatre. It says that the ground
must be even and firm, and the soil sweet in smell and taste. The same things
are mentioned in a long quotation from some unknown work, given by
Adjyarkkunallar. It says that the soil of the ground should be sweet in scent
and taste, and free from pebbles. The ground must not be moist or swampy. One
of the characteristics of good soil is that when a pit is dug, the mud dug out,
on refilling the pit with it, must not remain as surplus. One must take care
that he does not destroy for the sake of building a theatre such institutions
of Dharma, like temples, monasteries, Brahmins' settlements and public
wells. The most valuable part of this quotation is the locality it gives as the
most proper place for the theatre. The theatre described by the Silappadikaram
is a theatre in the Rajadhani or the Capital, and it is in the city and not
in the palace. It is, however, patronised by the king. The use of the theatres
is much spoilt by their locality. This quotation says that the theatre shall be
built in the very centre of the city, facing one of the four main streets along
which the car of the temple of that city runs:
“Urin
Naduvinadahi,
Ter
odun veedihal edirmuhamahi.”
Another
writer is quoted here, and the qualities of good soil and the evils resulting
from the choosing of bad soil are rather elaborately spoken of by
Adiyarkkunallar. Another anonymous quotation gives the scale of measurement
referred to at the beginning.
Another
valuable quotation is from Seyittriyanar, who is the only writer who gives
slightly different dimensions for the stage. All the texts available give the
same dimensions, and refer to the same details, two gates, three curtains, etc.
Seyittriyanar, while not changing the length, breadth and height of the
stage-platform, gives the height of the stage-space between the floor of the
stage and the beam, not as 4 kols but as 3 kols:
“Mukkol
Tanum uyarvum uritte.”
Another
anonymous quotation here refers us to rules laid down by treatises in Sanskrit
on the subject of the stage. Madivananar and
Bharata Senapatiyar are quoted on the curtains, that they are three in number.
We
have already mentioned that Adiyarkkunallar gives information about the other
parts of the theatre. No quotations are given by him as regards these. He himself
says that the other parts of the theatre not mentioned in the Silappadikaram
must be taken as understood. Those he thus mentions are: -
Karandu
Pokkidam – Place to retire into, or place on the sides into
which, after acting, the actor passes. This place perhaps served not only as
verandahs to retire into, but also as green-room.
Kannular
Kudijnaippalli – cloth tents housing the actors. These
tents may suggest that the actors were travelling troupes, or that these tents
were closely attached to the stage as substitutes for green-room.
Mannar
Mandarodirukkum Avai Arangam – the portion of the sabha
as audience for the king and his party.
Ivattraiccoozhnda
Puvi Nirai Mandar – The audience portion for the citizen
spectators. From this we see that the king sat with his attendants in the
centre, and the other spectators, the chief citizens, sat round him in a
semi-circle.
There
is one more Tamil treatise on Natya to be dealt with. It is called the Suddhanandaprakasam
and is with M. M. Swaminatha Aiyar. It seems to be later than all the works
referred to above. On the dimensions of the stage, it not only follows but
reproduces also the words of the Silappadikaram. Extracts from this work
are given by the Editor as footnotes. From these extracts we see that this work
draws most upon the Sanskrit treatises. On the subject of stage-building, two
extracts from it are given by the Editor. These two extracts show the
indebtedness of the work to the Silappadikaram and the Sanskrit Natya
literature. Bharata says that the erection of the stage must be attended with
auspicious ceremonies, feasting, music, and dance. The Suddhanandaprakasam also
says that Adal, Padal, Kottu and Pani must mark the construction
of the theatre. The extract further directs the stage builder to avoid places
near temples, monasteries, birds’ nests, ant-hills, and not to destroy these
for building the theatre. Similarly it says that proximity to the quarters of
elephants, the horse-stables, the battle-field and the hamlet of the low people
must be avoided. In the second extract, the work says that besides the Varna
Bhutas drawn on the floor of the stage for worship, there must be
established on the stage the deity called Nandin. This is clearly due to
Sanskrit influence, Nandin being one of the heads in the Sanskrit Natya
pantheon. The extract further says that the theatre must be decorated with
carvings of animals and birds.
There
is a treatise in palm-leaf manuscript in the Adyar Mss. Library called Sangita
Sangraha Chintamani by one Appalacharya of Srimushnam village, which is in
South Arcot district. The work is in Sanskrit and Tamil; there are verses
written in ungrammatical Sanskrit and upon them long comments are made in
colloquial Tamil. The treatise is not very recent.
One
of the chapters of this work treats of Natya, in connection with which the
erection of a theatre is described. I have got a copy of this chapter made for
me and the following account of the stage is given in it. Temples, monasteries,
and Brahmin settlements should be avoided; and a good place for a theatre must
be chosen within a park or an island in the midst of a tank. Such soil
as is rocky or is full of ash, bones, and pebbles, must be avoided. The best
soil is that in which, when a pit is dug and mud dug out is again put into the
pit, we have some more mud left out; when there is no mud left out, the soil is
not bad; but when the mud is insufficient to fill the pit, the soil is bad. The
soil of bad taste should be avoided. The text gives the evil results of various
bad tastes of soils.
The
treatise gives two types of stages, one measuring 64 x 32 Karas or Hastas
or Muzhams and the other 32 x 16. Thus, in Bharata's words, both the
types are by shape Vikrishta; and by size the former is Jyeshtha than
the latter which is smaller. Sixteen pillars are then mentioned, after the
erection of which Vastupuja is to be done. The decoration of the house
and the arrangement of the king's seat in the audience are then described. In
this section the text quotes a Sanskrit treatise called Nritta Ratnakaram. From
the above we see the similarities of details given in this work, which bases
itself on the Sanskrit Natya literature, to those found in the Tamil texts
above dealt with.
Thus
this survey of the fragments of the Tamil Natya literature not only proves
largely the subject on hand, viz., the existence of well-built theatres
in ancient India, but incidentally proves the fundamental unity that underlies
Indian literature and art, the indebtedness of all vernaculars to Sanskrit, and
the close way in which provincial literature and art are knit to Sanskrit, the
Himalayan source of all the currents.