SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDE IN
INDIA,
ANCIENT AND MODERN.
Dr. P. Venugopala
Rao
This article analyzes the traditions that
helped or discouraged the growth of scientific attitude at various stages
during the past five thousand-year history of India. Contributions in the areas
or astronomy, mathematics, medicine, linguistics, physics and technology in
ancient and medieval periods are reviewed. The impact of colonial rule and the
encounter with European Science are examined. Finally, cross-cultural scientific
engagement in independent India and its role in modernization are discussed.
India is perhaps the only state in the world
that has officially designated the development of science as the responsibility
of the government. This choice represents the desires and goals of a
substantial section of the national leadership that worked hard to wrest the
status of independence from their colonial rulers.
In 1958 the Indian parliament adopted a
resolution, which was drafted and introduced by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, It
became known as the Scientific Policy Resolution. The resolution includes
statements such as the following: “It is only through the scientific approach
and method, and the use of scientific knowledge that reasonable material and cultural
amenities and services can be provided to every member of the community and it
is out of recognition of this possibility that the idea of a welfare stale has
grown.”
Nehru’s resolution encapsulated India’s
optimism for growth, industrialization and modernization and propagated
the notion of scientific temper. In one of his writings he asserts: “It is the
scientific approach, the adventurous and yet the critical temper of science,
the search for truth and knowledge, the refusal to accept anything without
testing and trial, the capacity to change previous conclusions in the face of
the new evidence, the reliance on observed fact and not on preconceived theory,
the hard discipline of mind - all this is necessary, not merely for the application
of science but for life itself and the solution
of its problems.”
Two decades later, a large group of Indian scientists, including some prominent social scientists, issued a statement in 1981, and explained to the nation the meaning of the scientific temper in the following words:
(a) That the method of science provides available method of acquiring knowledge
(b) That human problems can be understood and solved in terms of knowledge gained through the application of the method of science
(c)
That the fullest use of the method of science in
everyday, life and in every aspect of human endeavour from ethics to politics
and economics - is essential for ensuring human survival
and progress; and
(d)
That one should
accept knowledge gained through the application of the method of science as the
closest approximation to truth at that time and question what is incompatible
with that knowledge and that one should from time to time reexamine the basic
foundations of contemporary knowledge.
According to the Article 51 A (h) of the constitution of India, it is now the duty of every citizen of India ‘to develop the scientific temper, humanism and a spirit of inquiry’.
The development of science and technology during the decades following independence in 1947 was based primarily on the leadership of Nehru and his associates and their faith in science. From where did this faith in science and technology come to the leadership in India?
For almost two hundred years before
independence, India was under the influence of British colonialism, first under
the East India Company and later under the direct rule of the British
Government. Colonialism has left its unmistakable mark on India’s history. The
leaders of India, those who fought for freedom from British, as well as those who
continued to lead the country after independence, were themselves products of
an educational system and training schemes instituted by the British in India.
There has been a growing interest in recent years on the study of colonialism
in general and the British Raj in particular and their place in the history of
India. Some of these studies are specifically directed towards understanding
the transfer of western science and technology into India.
“It
is well known that the colonial rulers during the company phase did not
initially consider it necessary to educate Indians in science (as they knew and
practiced then). The early colonizers were very careful. In order to legitimize
their presence and their power, they first discredited the existing structures
in the society. “Indians were declared unscientific, superstitious and
resistant to change; India was identified with dirt and disease. Travelers, scholars
and officials subscribed to this view.”
But soon the colonizers found that it was
necessary to impart some useful education to their subject Indians. They needed
local personnel to fill in the positions of colonial administration; to serve
in the large-scale state sponsored enterprises such as railways, and public
engineering works. Their plans for the promotion of this useful learning in
India were conditioned by their desire to project the superiority of the
European mind. The educational policy they adopted by the 1830’s promoted
education of Indians mostly in literary and historical knowledge. The famous
Macaulay’s Minute specifically recommended instruction in English language
through which western science could also be imported. But this minimal science
education was imparted only as a means through which to expand and consolidate
their empire in India and to extract maximum profit from the natural resources
of the country with the help of local manpower. Teaching of science for the
sake of knowledge did not fit into the colonial scheme.
However, we stern science and technology
trickled through during this company phase of the British rule. Indians
appreciated what they came to know about. “The appearance of the surveyor, the
plant collector, the mineralogist and the introduction of steam vessel, steam
railway, electric telegraph, printing press, telescope and a host of other
inventions began to arrest the attention of the local populace. The Hindus, the
Muslims, the artisans, the cultivators, the feudal lord or the local ruler, all
were aware of the magical spell of the new phenomenon, and therefore approved
its diffusion. The elite members of the Indian society became the active agents
in the transmission and spread of the new scientific world view.”
By the late
nineteenth century, there was increasing and enthusiastic demand for the
introduction of western science and technology. Institutes of higher education were being established, but Indians were
discriminated against when it came to appointment of teachers. A British
administrator wrote about these conditions in the following words: “There was a
strong doubt, not to say prejudice, against the capacity of an Indian to take
any important position in Science...It was assumed that India had no aptitude
for the exact methods of science. For science therefore India must look
to the West for teachers”
It was in such an atmosphere the Indian
Association for the Cultivation of Science was established in 1876. The man
behind this idea was Mahendar Lal Sircar. The institution was to correct the
exclusive emphasis of the colonial rulers on technical education and to provide
opportunities for teaching and research in basic sciences. It was intended to
free Indians, in the long run, from the humiliating bondage of being mechanics
working for the rulers. It is interesting to note that there were also some
Indians who opposed Sircar’s ideas by claiming that Indians were not yet
capable of basic scientific research. The association trained a number of
scientists in basic research, who later played an active role in the
development of scientific institutions in India. They were to join hands with
the leadership of the Indian National Congress and build support for the ideas
of Jawahar Lal Nehru.
India was receptive to science and its
promises even during the colonial period. Openness to new ideas was not wanting.
While the motives of the colonial power were questionable and their attitudes
reprehensible, they could not but pave the way for the diffusion of their
knowledge and skills. There was scientific temper, but not at the level of
intensity and adventure, which Nehru was demanding, in the free India. Hence
the parliament of India was asked to step in and go on record that it was
needed. This commitment was incorporated eventually in the constitution that
governs the country.
But what was the state of mind and skills of
the native population of India when the
colonial adventurers began their intrusion into India? Was there an indigenous
science and technology in pre-colonial India? As we go back into the historical
past, the very notions of science and technology have to be understood
appropriately.
Science can be simply referred to as
systematically organized knowledge subjected to verification and tested both
logically and empirically. At some point in history, it is recorded formally so
that it can be transferred orally and through writing. In the native discourses
of India, the word sastra is very much used in this sense. In addition
science is often referred to as vijnana meaning that it is knowledge
about the world. This knowledge includes the possibility of being modified or
corrected through observation, experimentation and prediction. The most common
expression used in Indian languages to refer to science in general is sastriya
Vijnanam, which can be loosely translated as scientific knowledge.
The presence of scientific attitude can be
investigated through careful analysis of a particular body of knowledge and by
investigating the steps by which this knowledge is, in fact, advanced. There
are very general factors which immediately call our attention when we refer to
the scientific attitude--the gathering or manufacturing of empirical evidence
by observation as well as experimentation, exercise of imagination in
formulating specific questions and hypotheses, and a coordinated interpretation
of the observations through, what we may call, insight and judgement. The
starting point for investigating existence of “science” in pre-colonial India
would be to ask the questions. “Is there a body of organized knowledge in
pre-colonial India? If so, since when did it start to accumulate and how? Can
we refer to this as scientific knowledge? Is it indigenous, borrowed or
imposed?” Answering these questions is a monumental task that would involve
specialists in several disciplines, particularly considering the size of the
domain and its antiquity.
Let us now proceed back into history and look
at the medieval India in the pre-colonial times. Keeping in mind that the
colonial linage of medieval India is that of “stagnant and static society.” a
survey of the existing body of knowledge provides us with a picture of a land
characterized by a high degree of economic and manufacturing enterprise, as
substantiated by the extensive maritime trade in cotton textiles, iron, and
steel, ranging from Southeast Asia. West Asia and Africa to Western Europe. The
manufacture of cotton textiles enabled India to attain a preeminent position in
the pre-colonial era. In addition to the production of cotton, there were a
number of other enterprises that depended on sophisticated technological and
practical scientific knowledge. The tradition of mining and metallurgical
industries both in ancient and medieval times is well documented. Increasing
sophistication in metallurgical operations contributed to the manufacture of a
wide range of firearms and artillery representing the highest achievements of
industrial technology during the sixteenth and seventh centuries. But the country was predominantly an agrarian
society. Agricultural technology and the techniques of crop cultivation were
also quite developed and adapted to the local environmental and topographical
conditions. The drill plough represented a technological innovation for the
cultivation of tobacco, cotton, and the castor oil plant. Closely allied with
agriculture is irrigation. There is evidence for the presence of extensive
networks of artificial irrigation patronized by various rulers and systems of government
in ancient and medieval India.
The development of scientific thinking was
especially evident in the field of astronomy, for which there was extensive
patronage by the Moghal rulers. The keen interest in astronomy shown by Moghal
Emperors, Babar, Humayun, Akbar and Jahangir was well documented. The
widespread use of astrology which is closely dependent upon astronomy, and the
felt need to compile and reform different systems of calendars kept astronomy a
highly patronized area of interest. The conditions were ripe for a partial
synthesis of Indian, central and west Asian astronomical traditions. The five
gigantic observatories designed and constructed by Raja Jai Singh in the early eighteenth century stand as the most spectacular expression of
this synthesis or diverse traditions. Along with a team of Indian astronomers.
European astronomers were also present in his court. Raja Jai Singh even
financed an expedition of some of his court astronomers to Portugal. His
primary goal in building the observatories was to make solar observations
specially for the purpose of collecting astronomical data to reform the solar
calendar that was in his use during his time. But even as Jai Singh and his
astronomers were making observations, the dawn of colonial intrusion was
descending in the coastal districts of India.
If we take into account all this, it is not
unreasonable to assume that there did exist in medieval India a fair degree of
development of technology and the necessary science that goes along with it. To
construct an idealized view of scientific attitude in medieval India based upon
this review, however would be hazardous. Suffice it to say that there was a
widespread indigenous base from which creativity and invitation could develop.
We shall resist the temptation to paint a glorious picture and go on to ask
what was it like in much earlier times - in ancient times.
We might as well start from the very
beginnings, which we can identify. The starting point for the narrative of
Indian history is, of course, the
Indus Valley Civilization. In
order to set up a time frame, the following dates for Indus valley period
accepted by most archeologists are assumed:
Pre-Harappan Cultures 3400 - 2800 BC
Ilarappa Culture(Mature) 3100 - 1900 BC
The facts are supplied to us by archaeology,
The Harappans were a disciplined people and this discipline was visible in all
walks of life. For example they have been credited with the knowledge of the
science of yoga. The greatest invention of the Harappans was the invention of
an alphabetic system of writing by simplifying a partly pictographic script, using
simple cursive signs with basic phonetic values. Harappans became pioneers in
studying tides, waves and currents and put their knowledge to practical use to
build tidal dock at Lothal. The civilization, representing a special
achievement in the world of third millennium BC, covered a little less than
half a million square miles and lasted for about five centuries as a distinct
cultural entity. It was a complex of city-centered communities of
agriculturists and craftsman. There is circumstantial evidence for maritime
trade. Extensive trade also provided the stimulus for the development of an
elaborate system of weights and measures. Archaeologists have also been able to
find evidence for the presence of rudimentary astronomical system.
Moving forward in time into the Vedic times,
we find that Vedic literature has left us with enough evidence to let us know
that the Vedic practitioners were not only skillful and discerning observers of
the sky, but used that knowledge in their lives in very significant way. Vedic
collections of hymns, ritual descriptions and philosophical speculations
indicate activities, that we now can categorize as astronomy. The requirements
for certain religious practice, especially the need to determine the accurate
time for the performance of sacrifices, provided a degree of stimulus and
support for a systematic study of celestial bodies. The development of
geometrical, mathematical and astronomical ideas was preserved in the
Sulbsutras, composed and systematized somewhere between 800 and 600 B.C. The
main text of the Sulbasutras consists of rules and instructions governing the
measurement and construction of sacrificial altars for the execution of
particular religious rites and rituals. Panini’s grammar, of probably
600 BC origin, is considered to
he an intellectual achievement of all
time.
A few centuries after the Vedic period, mathematical
and astronomical knowledge represented a shift away from earlier dependence on
religion. The most well known text of this period is the Surya Siddhant, (400
AD), a repository of astronomical knowledge. A key innovation arising from the
Surya Siddhanta was the use of the sine of an angle. The period also witnessed
the birth of the mathematician astronomer Aryabhatta (about 499 AD) and his two
famous followers Varahamihira (505-587 AD) and Bhaskara I (b. 600 AD) Another
famous scholar in astronomy and mathematics of this period is Brahmagupta (b.
598 AD). Further development in astronomy took place as the first millennium
progressed and we recognize names such as Mahavira (b. 850 AD). Sridhara (b.
900 AD), Aryabhatta II (b. 950 AD) and
Bhaskara II (1100 AD). Most historians of science and mathematics agree that
the use of numerals and zero found in modern mathematics originated from
ancient India. The flourishing
tradition of mathematics and astronomy continued in, South India, as found in
the work of Madhava (1340-1425 AD) and Nilakantha Somayaji (1444-1545 AD).
Along with these aspects of science, a range
of medical systems developed and flourished in India. The most well-known of
these today is Ayurveda, meaning “the Knowledge of long life”. Key texts, the
Charaka Samhita and Susruta Samhita, were compiled over a long period from 200
BC to 400 AD. Ancient Ayurvedic scholars viewed man - his health and, his
growth and decay, and the very phenomenon ordinarily called life (or prana) - in
terms of matter, the Indian word (or which is bhuta. They reach the firm conviction that this matter,
of which everything is made, is knowable and that there is nothing mysterious
or supernatural about the laws of its transformation. These laws are
essentially laws of nature, the knowledge of which - the
ancient doctors argue in their own way - extends human power over nature, which
from the medical point of view means ensuring long and healthy life. This is
indeed a magnificent beginning in India of science consciousness, with
materialist outlook forming its theoretical basis.
However, “the source books of Ayurveda in
their extant forms give us the apparent impression of being quaint bundles of
incompatible philosophical views to crude contradictions of practical
precepts”. These incompatibilities in the texts can be explained by the fact
that there was hostility of religion to medical science traceable to as ancient
as the times of Vedas. The superimpositions that were grafted on to the genuine
medicine in these texts may be of the nature of ransoms offered to the
authority of religion with the hope of making it acceptable to orthodoxy. The
growth of medical knowledge also stimulated the development of a number of
auxiliary systems of knowledge, which might be labeled as botany and chemistry
in the modern period.
Let us now return to the question we have not
yet asked, that is, ‘what are the results of the Scientific Policy of India?’
The years following Independence witnessed a
rapid expansion of science and technology institutions in India. India has
effectively institutionalized an extensive and complex infrastructure for the
performance of scientific and technological activity. It was expected that
these investments in science and technology would result in economic growth and
eradication of poverty, as well as enable the country to achieve planned
objectives in development and modernization. But success has been only partial.
The oil crisis in 1970s brought this dissatisfaction into focus and lead to the
emergence of movements of science activism rooted in a concern for the general
public. The main concern of these movements is with the authority or the
scientific establishment as a whole.
People’s Science Movement:
This movement was initiated by an agency
called Kerala Shastra Sahitya Parishad in early 60’s and is now coordinated
through a body called the All India People’s Science network formed in 1990.
“People’s science” means not merely simplifying and popularizing science,
though these processes are considered essential. Fundamentally, it means
creating a consciousness or a critical bent of mind among the common people and
infusing in them a sense of questioning with regard to each and every aspect of
science for development and industrialization, particularly the nature of its
appropriation. That is assumed to be scientific content in every social issue
and vice-versa. Empowering people through science is one of the movements main
objectives. It subscribes to Nehruvian discourse in considering modern science
as a tool of social and economic emancipation, it sees no contradiction in
supporting the goals of science for industrialization so long as they are not
placed in the hands of antisocial or selfish agencies in the society.
These groups share the view that the hegemony
of modern, western science and the process of rapid industrialization
engineered by it are the root cause of India’s general crisis of modernity.
They see the progress of western science and modern technological traditions as
running counter to the cultural ethos and aspirations of non-western societies
such as India. Even before Nehru was encouraging the parliament to pass the
Scientific Policy Resolution, some intellectuals were asserting that progress to the Asian people does not mean the conquest or nature, but rather the
realization of a harmonious relationship of interdependence between man and
nature”. There are moderate and extreme positions in this alternative science
movement. The moderate position rejects the reconstitution or western science in the Indian context. Extreme position rejects modern western science, which is characterized
essentially as violent both in its method and its operation in non-western
societies. Claude Alvares’s Critique of scientific thinking is an example of
this kind of extreme position. He argues ‘that both science and the technology
based on it are fundamentally violent forms of handling the world, that
violence is intrinsic to science, to its text, to its design and
implementation’.
Patriotic and People Oriented
Science and Technology (PPST)
PPST does not reject modern, western science
and technology, but its agenda is to develop a critique of the modern
civilization embedded in modern scientific and technological systems. It seeks
to counter the claims of modern science that it is universal, objective,
value-free, ultimate, unique and the only source of legitimate knowledge and
enlightenment. It argues the view that indigenous traditions in the domain of
knowledge, skill and production still can play a useful role in our present
context.
What we are witnessing today is awareness of
the fact that commitment to science and technology alone does not solve the
problems or a large country such as India, particularly when a majority of the
society has not been able to gain access to the fruits of progress based on
this science and technology.
If one stops and reflects upon what we have
surveyed, it is not difficult to conclude that the history of India has had
periods of both strength and weakness in scientific creativity and
technological innovation: It will not escape our attention that the questioning
attitude and the tradition of observation and abstract thinking are part of
Indian heritage. Traditional knowledge was arrived at by observation as well as
inference. There is also vast amount of literature that testifies to the
philosophical thinking and metaphysical speculations of the Indian mind which
we have not surveyed here.
The absence or lack of science and technology
in certain periods of history may have to be explained in terms of political,
social and economic parameters. It is also clear that much knowledge that could
be placed in the categories of science and technology is practical and utilitarian. A sense of adventure is
missing, Bhargava and Chakrbarthi expressed the same feeling when they wrote,
“Indeed we should very much like to know if there are written records of
Indians available who went abroad and came back with new information which then
became amalgamated with our own, leading to advances which would have otherwise
not been possible. We refer here to the ancient period say up to 1000 AD.”
If Nehru called for the nurturing of
scientific temper in the nation’s culture, the implication was that he wanted his countrymen to
admit that there was a glaring absence
of it at that point in history, relative to the size and needs of the
population, and that the situation needed to be corrected, While intellectuals
of different ideologies, voice their concerns, the country and the majority of
its inhabitants believe that scientific thinking, in its broad sense, is deeply
embedded in its heritage. The nation of India and its leaders unhesitatingly
subscribe to the view that the education of its masses in science and the use
of modern technology in its life are unquestionable goals and necessary roads
towards progress.