A STUDY OF “MALAPALLI”

(Novel by the Andhra novelist Unnava Lakshminarayana)

Prof. B. KUPPUSWAMY

Director, Institute for Social & Psychological Research, Bangalore

Unnava Lakshminarayana (1877-1958) was a great social reformer and political leader of Andhra, who participated in the Non-co-operation Movement of 1921, Salt Satyagraha Movement in 1931 and Quit India Movement in 1942. He wrote this stirring novel Mallapalli, when he was in jail in Vellore in 1921, about the twin problems of national independence and the untouchability. It was published m 1922. He died at the ripe age of eighty. His interest in social reform was stimulated in 1905 when he went to Rajahmundry to undergo teacher training; he met Kandukuri Veeresalingam Pantulu and helped him in running the Widows’ Home. On his return to Guntur, he established a Widows’ Home in 1907 and was instrumental in getting about forty widows re-married. In 1913, he went to Ireland, studied law and was enrolled as a Barrister in 1916 in Dublin. On his return, he established legal practice in Madras. He jumped into the non-co-operation movement in 1921 and went to jail.

It is interesting to note that this novel was banned in 1923, soon after its publication by the British rulers. It was permitted to be republished in 1935 only when certain parts were deleted. It was prescribed as a text-book by the Andhra University authorities. However, it was again banned in 1936. This ban was removed in 1937 by C. Rajagopalachari who formed the Congress Government of the composite Madras State in that year.

A brief review of the problems dealt in the novel has been attempted in this article.

The problems of untouchability

The title Malapalli indicates the theme as well as the problems about which the story is written. Translated in English the title is The Untouchable Villager, as it is now termed, The Harijan Village.

The novel is probably the very first novel published in any language in India on the problem of untouchability. The Kannada novel Chomanadudi by Sivarama Karant, having been published in 1932 and the English novel Untouchable by Mulkraj Anand in 1933.

The novel deals with the fate of two families in a village Mangalapuram in the Guntur district of the former Madras Presidency and the present Andhra Pradesh. The first is the family of Ramadas, the fairly well-to-do, well-educated and highly religious untouchable. The second is the family of the rich, upper-caste, landlord, Ramanna Chowdari. The two families are brought together because Sangadas, the son of Ramadas, is a jita labourer in the house of Chowdari (p. 5).* According to the jita system, the man who borrows, or some other member of his family, works in the house of the person who lends the money, till the debt is repaid. The jita labourer, Sangadas and Chowdari’s son Ramanaidu, are about the same age and are great friends. In fact, Ramanaidu, the rich man’s son, admires the learning, the idealistic outlook and excellent behaviour of Sangadas.

The untouchable Ramadas is a follower of the great Shri Ramanuja, the Shrivaishnavite philosopher and religious leader of the 12th century. Ramadas was a Vaishnava priest for the untouchables (pp. 10-11). He is a great devotee of Vishnu and well-read in Bhakti literature. He admires the great Vishnubhakta, Ramadas of Bhadrachalam, after whom he is named. His children are well-read in Bhakti literature and are of exemplary character.

Buchayya, the great scholar and saintly person, goes to the house of Ramadas to borrow a religious book (pp. 21-22). Ramadas feels miserable that he was not in the house when Buchayya came, since both of them are co-disciples. On learning that the scholar will be in the village for a day or two, Ramadas makes up his mind to see him the next morning. Ramadds meets Buchayya the next morning with the two young men Ramanaidu and Sangadas. Three chapters, 7th to 9th, are devoted to describe the discussions on Brahman with form and the formless Brahman and how it is all a matter of the way one looks at the problem (p. 48). These chapters reveal how very enlightened Ramadas and his son Sangadas are. In one context, Ramadas and his family are referred to as Brahmins among Malas (p. 32).

The sixth chapter (pp. 29.39) is devoted to a description of the condition of the citizens of Malapalli. The village is strewn with carcasses of cattle, skin, etc., disseminating a foul smell. Even the Muslims of the village look down upon them and detest eating with them (p. 35). Ramadas feels disgusted and cries out, “It is because of this, we are not allowed to stay inside the village and we are called Chandalas” (p. 30). He realises that most of them do not pay attention to personal hygiene and do not bathe. This kind of life style, he identifies, as being the consequence of two reasons–poverty and Ignorance. This is why Ramadas says, Sangadu, his son, is eager that schools should be established to educate them and to train them for vocations. This requires finances as well as new laws. Above all, it requires time. He ends up by appealing to God Shri Krishna (p. 30). It is indeed astonishing that the picture drawn in ’Twenties is largely valid even in ’Eighties of the 20th century.

Subbalakshmi, the sister of Ramadas, was beaten up severely by Basivi Reddy, because she walked across his farm to collect grass for cattle. This is an instance of the way in which the untouchables are treated by the upper-castes. The local barber examines and says that she has a fracture and that he cannot treat her. Sangadas goes to see her. She complains that she is on her death-bed and that he should look after her son Appadas who is a jita servant in the house of her brother Ramadas. He assures her that he will look after the boy and that he will arrange to send her to the hospital (pp. 85 ff). Though she is admitted to the hospital, her condition was beyond surgery and she died.

Though Ramadas and his family are living in the village of untouchables, they are quite different in their life style. They bathe regularly and study religious books and discuss religious, social and ethical problems.

Problems of agricultural labourers

Another important problem treated in the novel is the problem of agricultural labourers and their wages. The traditional arrangement was payment of wages in grain. But with the change in economic condition, the farmers prefer to pay in cash. This is cheaper since the cost of grains has gone up. But this affects the wage-earner adversely since he is unable to purchase the needed grains with the cash paid to him. There is a long discussion between the landlord Chowdary and Sangadas regarding the barter system and monetary system in the 17th chapter (pp. 106 ff). The labour leader Sangadas is in favour of pay with grains, but Chowdary wants to follow the monetary system. Sangadas shows that while the wages have gone up by 100 per cent(from 25 np to 50 np) the cost of grains has gone up by 300 to 400 per cent (p. 109). Thus the author anticipates the need for wage-price equation sixty years back.

Sangadas has now become a leader of not only the untouchables but also of agricultural labourers.

Sangadas wants to go to Bezawada to participate in the Panchama Conference (Ch. 20). His master’s son, friend and admirer Ramanaidu also accompanies him. The author describes an interesting scene in the restaurant at the Railway Station. It must be recalled that in the pre-independence days, in the Western style hotels and restaurants, the cooks and bearers were from the untouchable castes. No upper-caste man would cook meat and serve the Westerner who was considered a Mleccha. Tbe author gives the title madigannam to the 20th chapter, that is, the food cooked and served by the Madiga, the leather-Worker. Ramanaidu and Sangadas take their meals together in the Railway Restaurant. This was indeed outrageous. Ramanaidu is not only taking food with the untouchable Sangadas, but also the food cooked and served by untouchables.

In the following three chapters, the discussions and resolutions passed by the conference are described. Venkata Reddi is the President of the conference and Somayajulu is an important member. That is, the upper-caste men take a keen interest in the social problems. Sangadas is given the task of framing the resolutions. The author calls the 23rd chapter, Sanghanirmanamu, the establishment of a new society. All the various resolutions presented by Sangadas and approved unanimously relate to the twin problems of abolition of social inequality and raising the economic status of the agricultural labourers. Special emphasis is laid on the abolition of Untouchability, provision of education and training, voting rights to the labourers, etc. (pp. 156-8). The resolutions reveal the influence of two revolutions which were under way at the time, viz., the Soviet Revolution and the Gandhian Revolution.

Labour-Landlord conflict

The father Ramanna Chowdari was a traditional anti-labour man. But the son Ramanaidu was a great admirer of the labour leader Sangadas. That is why he attended the Panchama Conference at Bezawada. But why did his father permit him to participate in the conference? He did so because there was a great agitation among the agricultural labourers against the landlords. He tried to negotiate with Sangadas. When be found that it was impossible, he was glad that Sangadas would be out of the way to attend the conference and that he could deal with the labourers more easily in the absence of the leader. So he did not prevent his son from accompanying his friend (P. 131)

Chowdari expected that the labourers will come and do their work. But they did not come. So he went round to collect the labour for harvesting. He found them indifferent. He further learnt that Sangadas had prevailed on the workers not to go for work unless higher wages or grains are given. He became wild hearing this. He realised that a Panchama could confront him with success. His anger was further aggravated by the information given by the village munsiff that his son took his meals in the Railway Restaurant with the Panchama Sangadas and that attempts were being made by the village elders to outcaste Rama-naidu, his son (p. 161). He was also greatly incensed when he learnt that at the conference resolutions were passed asking the labourers to unite and demand higher wages.

He goes to the room of Sangadas in his compound to tackle him. But he finds that the room is bolted. He shouts. Sangadas opens the door. Chowdari attacks Sangadas. His head is broken by the blow and he falls down. Chowdari was frightened by seeing blood. He threw away the weapon with which he attacked, bolted the door, and ran into his house (p. 164). One labourer saw this and shouted. Hearing this other labourers rushed, broke open the door and saw that Sangadas was lying in a pool of blood. They rushed to get at Chowdari. They shouted that they will kill him. His wife informed them that he went to the cattle shed. They rushed there. Not finding him, they rush back to the house. But by this time, Lakshmamma, Chowdari’s wife, bolts the door. They tried to break it, but could not. They decided to report the matter to the village munsiff and to inform the parents of Sangadas (p. 165).

On hearing that Sangadas was murdered by Chowdari, his brother, Venkatadas, swears to wreak vengeance, arms himself and rushes to his house to kill him. On seeing him, all the labourers once again attack Chowdari’s house. Later they pacify Venkatadas and send him back to the village (p. 168).

On hearing the report, the police came. But Ramadas and his wife refused to charge Chowdari with the crime. The police draw up a report that the death of Sangadas was due to suicide and get the Panchayat to sign it (p. 172).

The people of the village took the body in a procession and buried it.

This ends the first part of the book of 25 chapters in 175 pages.

Sangapeetham

Appadas, the nephew of Ramadas, is greatly upset by the two calamities he faces. His mother died as she was beaten up by Basivi Reddi, because she strays into his land to collect grass (p. 85). Now he hears the death of his favourite cousin and teacher Sangadas, being killed by Chowdari the landlord (p. 164).

The people of the area were so moved by the untimely and brutal murder of Sangadas, whom they loved and admired, that they decided to establish a cultural institution, which they called Sangapeetham, to perpetuate his memory and to achieve the objectives for which he lived and died. Appadas was greatly excited by the project and was all enthusiasm for its establishment and functioning. He wanted that it should be a religious, cultural and educational centre for the enlightenment of the agricultural labourers (p. 191). The poor as well as the rich in the area joined together to establish the institution (p. 201). In the final pages of the story, this institution was made the seat of a university (p. 666).

Courts of justice used as engines of injustice

Chowdari was incensed by two things: he was stunned at the public image of Sangadas; he was stung by the fact that he could not move around in the village because of the hostile attitude of people towards him and by his own sense of guilt (p. 201). He wanted to ruin Ramadas, humiliate the untouchables and re-establish his prestige in the village. He consults his friend Pantulu, who had earlier helped him to extricate himself from the murder charge. The two conspire to institute a law suit against mortgage of ten acres of land by Ramadas (p. 205). Ramadas is shocked when he gets summons from the court (p. 240). The court gave a decree in favour of Chowdari and against Ramadas. The decree is executed and all the lands, articles, etc., of Ramadas are acquired and Ramadas and his family are thrown out (p. 305). Venkatadas, the second Son of Ramadas, was not in the village at the time. He had gone away on hearing that the court had decided against his father. Ramanaidu, the son of Chowdari, is shocked that Ramadas is dispossessed of all his property and that efforts were being made to drive him out of the village. Ramanaidu asks Pantulu to put a stop to this harassment. Pantulu replies that Chowdari may relent if Ramanaidu gave up his connection with Sangapeetham (p. 308).

Next day Venkatadas, the son of Ramadas, returns to the village and learns about the events that have taken place. People expected that he would become angry. But he was cool (P. 309). Later on he announces that he is going away from the village. He swears to annihilate Chowdari, who murdered his brother Sangadas. He asserts that laws and Dharma (righteousness) are all in favour of the rich who exploit the poor. He takes an oath to destroy as many rich people as possible in order to help the poor. He declares a war on the rich (p. 310).

The new career or Venkatadas

Venkatadas takes the name of Jaggadu and became a bandit. The thieves bore holes in the walls of the houses of rich and take away cash and jewels. Ramadas, in his utter poverty, enters the service of a rich Vaisya, takes cloth for sale and on his way to a town to sell it. On the way, he was met by three men who ask him the value of the cloth bundle. When he says that it costs Rs. 200, they give him Rs. 400 and take away the bundle. Ramadas is overwhelmed by astonishment. He tells his wife and daughter what has happened. It is decided that he should give the money next day to the merchant, Subbiah Setty. The merchant takes the full amount that is double the value of goods and gives him Rs. 30 that is his due after deducting Rs. 2 towards the advance he had given earlier. A stranger comes to Setty’s house and takes away the Rs. 200 which he got by cheating Ramdas. In the middle of the night thieves come, bore a hole in the wall and removed the jewels and a vessel full of coins. (p. 359). The next morning, the whole town knew about the burglary. The police came to investigate. Police squads were sent to different mountainous areas to hunt the burglars. The thieves surround a group of 14 policemen, removed their uniforms and arms and tied them to the trees (p. 363). In another area, the police party had to surrender to the thieves, because they were afraid that they would use up their ammunition. The bandit leader ordered them to throwaway their arms. The policemen did so. Then he came and informed the policemen that according to the orders of their chief, Takkella Jagannathamgaru, they were permitted to go. The thieves gathered the arms and dispersed (p. 364). The next day, the police took the help of the villagers and went to the forest and released the group tied for the trees (p. 364). Printed notices were distributed by the dacoit leader Jagannatham threatening severe punishment to those who torture those who are caught, The Burrakatha technique was also used to convey the message (pp. 368 ff).

Venkatadas had organised district leaders of bandits and revolutionaries in each district (p. 507). He had organised training camps to the leaders. He was very constructive in his outlook. His influence had extended to the neighbouring princely states of Hyderabad and Mysore (p. 508). Though all the three Governments of Madras, Hyderabad and Mysore were combing the area, they were not able to locate where Jaggadu lived. His movements were like lightning. He was everywhere but he could be caught nowhere (p. 508). He had the goodwill of the citizens because he protected people. He was hostile only towards the rich and those who co-operated with the Government in their exploitation of the poor (p. 512). He was the absolute leader of the Santal Tribes (p 515). The forests were resounding, with the cries of “Veer Hanuman” (p 515). It was suspected that he had established mints and was minting coins in Nallamalakonda (p. 531).

Life in settlement

After the death of Chowdari and his wife, Ramanaidu, the son, and Venkatanaidu, the nephew, became the heirs to the property worth Rs. 8 lakhs. They decided to set apart some property for the daughters of Venkatanaidu and some for themselves and dedicate the rest for the progress of Sangapeetham (p. 379). Appadas and Ramadas were happy that the two rich brothers of Mangalapuram had decided to support Sangapeetham.

But the magistrate of Guntur district on receiving information that the people of Mangalapuram in general, and Malapalli in particular, were in league with the bandits, orders them to provide security and give an undertaking of good behaviour. They refused to comply. They were arrested. All, except Ramadas, were sentenced to imprisonment.

The collector ordered that Ramadas and his wife should be taken to the settlement because it was suspected that they are in league with the bandits (p. 395). They had to work as coolies in the settlement organised by the Government for those who were suspects but who would not be imprisoned as there was not enough evidence to convict them. Their daughter Jyoti and the little son Rangadu also went with them.

The settlement organisation was used as a means to convert people to Christianity.

When they reach the place, an Indian convert Paul meets them and welcomes them to “God’s own place.” He informs Ramadas that if he accepts Christianity, all the problems of his family members would be solved and that they could live happily. The police constable also confirms the statement of Paul (p. 401). Paul is also attracted by Jyoti, the daughter of Ramadas. Paul tells Ramadas how, on embracing Christianity, he was given education, job and money and that he had now a bank deposit also. Paul informs Ramadas that he is already leading the life of a real Christian. All that is necessary is only a change in name (p. 402). Ramadas is shocked at the tactics adopted by the Christian missionaries, with the approval of the Government authorities, to convert Hindus (p. 404). The police take the family to the house of Paul. But Ramadas wants that they should be taken to their hut (p. 405). But they are made to stay there for the night. They reluctantly take their food. Early morning, when Ramadas wakes up and starts his “Ramasmarana”, the woman in the house shouts that the house is being desecrated by heathen prayers (p. 407). Many attempts are made to persuade Ramadas and his wife to give their daughter Jyoti in marriage to Paul. One night the young woman becomes desperate and wants to commit suicide so that she and her parents could be free from this problem. The parents wake up and prevent this (p. 419).

Pullappa informs all the people in the settlement that they are required to attend the prayer meeting in the church. Pullappa is a member in the settlement (p. 423). The English missionary preaches in English and it is translated by Paul (p. 425). Ramadas says that they could not be forced to attend the prayer meeting. Pullappa says that they threaten to remove the settlement if nobody attends the prayer meetings. Ramadas points out that the purpose of establishing the settlement is to give them land so that they could start farming. Pullappa says that land is given only to “good” people and good people are those who either enlist in the army or get converted to Christianity (p. 433). Ramadas and Pullappa talk it over and decided to organise a strike. They want to persuade all the Hindus to boycott the prayer meeting (p. 434). Bronson, the superintendent, sends word to Ramadas to meet him. The messenger warns Ramadas that Bronson may get angry to see the “Naamam” on his forehead and requests him to wipe it out (p. 435). Ramadas dares the superintendent to wipe it (p. 435). As the messenger had warned, the wife of the superintendent was shocked to see the Naamam decoration and the superintendent asks him to wipe it out (p. 436). When the superintendent tried to wipe it out, Venkatayya, the cousin of Ramanaidu, both of whom had come to the settlement to see Ramadas, threatened to beat him (p. 437). The two cousins feel bad that Ramadas and his family had been exposed to these conditions.

When the Hindus in the settlement have their bath in the Krishna river in the morning and abstain from attending the prayer meeting at the Church, Paul and Bronson conspire and foist a false case of trying to abscond from the settlement on Ramadas and Pullappa. They are arrested and remanded to the sub-jail. The magistrate sentences both of them (p. 474).

In the meantime, seeing Jyoti and the boy Rangadu alone in the settlement, Paul who is madly in love with Jyoti tries various means to make her to consent to marry him. Failing in all these tactics, he got an old woman to take Jyoti to the river in the morning. There he first persuaded her and later to coerce her. She resents and commits suicide by drowning herself in the river.

Prison life

The central jail in Nidadavolu was one of the first jails established by the British in the area, with 288 cells for solitary confinement (p. 537). There were dormitories for a group of 15 prisoners to sleep. But the sanitary conditions were horrible and beyond description. There were 1600 prisoners there (p. 538). The author describes the jail organisation in a vivid manner (p. 539).

Though, according to jail rules, smoking was not only prohibited but also punishable with two years imprisonment, there was no prisoner who did not smoke. Still no case of smoking was brought before the magistrate. Daily tobacco was brought into the jail premises in various forms and was consumed liberally. (p. 555) Ramadas learns that the jailor, the head clerk, the chief surgeon, the warden-in-chief of the kitchen formed a party. They colluded and misappropriated the bulk rations and divided the grains among themselves. False records were maintained by the head clerk. Often condemned stuff was brought in and good stuff in the godowns was removed. Another method was to note the balance of grains in the store as freshly purchased (p. 627). Another instance of misappropriation was with respect to the disposal of goods manufactured by the prisoners in the jail. The prisoners and the wardens smuggled some of the goods outside and sold them and appropriated the money (p. 629).

After some experience in jail life, Ramadas was convinced that his opinion that life in a settlement was hell was not correct. He is now convinced that the jail life, if anything, is worse than life in settlement (p. 567).

The last phase

Finally the Government forces were able to capture Jaggadu, alias Venkatadas, after he lost his hands and legs (p. 515). The dacoits try to raid Kurnool jail and Nandyal jail to rescue him. But they fail. Venkatadas is tried in the Guntur court. Thousands collect to watch the proceedings. He is charged with burgling three houses and having stolen Rs. 10 lakhs (p. 531). Venkatadas however disagrees with the charges and asserts in the Court that the right to property is not a natural right. It is purely a right that is formulated in order to protect the rich people. He also gives a disquisition on social exploitation and shows that the Government, the Courts and religion have joined together to help the rich to exploit the poor (pp. 532 ff). The Court sentences him to imprisonment for five years (p. 536).

He is brought to Nandyal Central Jail. He requests the superintendent of the jail to permit his father Ramadas and his mother Mahalakshmamma to be with him in the jail hospital where he is taken for treatment (p. 586). When the parents are brought, they were astonished to find that the famous revolutionary Jaggadu was none other than their second son Venkatadas (p. 587). The son informs the parents of the death of their daughter Jyoti and nephew Appadas and the imprisonment of Ramanaidu (p. 588). On hearing the death of the daughter, the mother dies (p. 589). A chapter is devoted to a discussion between the monotheist father and the atheist son. At the end, the father acknowledges that though the Son does not believe in a God, he is the true follower of the principle of Dharma, the principle of righteousness (p. 598). Finally, Venkatadas passes away (p. 601).

The Government declares an amnesty after the death of the chief of bandits. As a result, Ramadas, Ramanaidu, Venkatayya and others are released (p. 646).

India, the author writes, is declared independent and a whole chapter (pp. 648 ff) is devoted to the resolutions passed by the Legislature which correspond closely to the resolutions passed by the Panchama Conference earlier (pp. 157 ff).

Ramanaidu, the son of the landlord Chowdari, and Venkatayya the nephew of Chowdari, resolve to donate their property to Sangapeetham and establish a university to train youth to implement the ideals approved by the free country. Ramadas is made the Chancellor of the university (pp. 655 ff).

The three paths to regenerate society

The author, it may be pointed out, indicates three ways of bringing about social change in the Indian society.

The first method is the one adopted by the great Indian thinker, Sri Ramanuja of 12th century. He tried to change the society by initiating people of all castes to Srivaishnavism, the path of Bhakti. If every human being believes in one God, the Creator, and looks upon all fellow human beings as brothers, a just society could be built up. This was the conviction of Sri Ramanuja. So he initiated people belonging to the various castes from the Brahmin caste to the untouchable caste to Vaishnavism. So did Ramadas, in the 20th century, who was considered as learned in Bhakti literature and was as great a devotee as any other person of that calibre. Ramadas had firm conviction that faith in and the practice of the principles of Vaishnavism can bring about a transformation of the people belonging to the untouchable caste. Right up to the end of his life he practises these principles and preached them. He was regarded as a great saint by people. But he realises that the method could succeed only with individuals and was not suitable for the transformation of society as a whole.

Sangadas, the son of Ramadas, and Ramanaidu, the son of Chowdari the landlord, believe in social action. They believed in the technique of holding conferences, discussing the social and economic problems and passing resolutions to bring about a just society. They also believed in educating the boys and girls of the entire society without any social barriers. They wanted to change laws so that new social institutions breathing social equality could be established.

But Venkatadas, who witnessed the murder of his idealist brother Sangadas by Chowdari and who saw the way in which wealth was utilised by Chowdari to escape the charge of murder realises as long as inequalities in wealth are there and as long as wealth could be utilised to prevent law from taking its course, a just society can never be established. So he believes neither religion as a force to bring about social transformation, nor in mere change in social institutions. He believes in the techniques of violence. He believes in the cult of violence which destroys the rich and tried to distribute the wealth so obtained among the have-nots. By this method he succeeds in creating fear in the Government authority and among the rich people. But violence can be suppressed by greater violence. It is true that Venkatadas succeeds in becoming a hero. But it cannot be said that he succeeds in his aim of transforming the society.

Thus, Ramadas, an untouchable, and his two sons, Sangadas and Venkatadas, stand for three ways of bringing about social transformation.

On the other hand, the landlord Chowdari is for status quo. He is against any kind of social change. He is convinced that the Upper-castes are born to acquire wealth and education and the lower-castes are born to serve the wealthy and prosperous people by being obedient, loyal and subservient.

But Ramanaidu, the son of Chowdari and Venkatayya, the nephew of Chowdari are attracted to the philosophy and outlook of Sangadas. They give their wealth to the Sangapeetham, the symbol of social transformation through education and change in social laws.

* The page numbers referred to in this article relate to the unabridged edition published by Triveni Publishers, Machilipatnam.

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